FYBA English Ancillary Sem- I-munotes

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Unit -1
LITERARY TERMS PART I: THE
ELEMENTS OF NOVEL AND SHORT
STORY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objective
1.1 Plot
1.2 Character
1.3 Setting
1.4 Narrative
1.4.1 Parts of the narrative
1.5 Themes
1.6 Point of View
1.6.1 Objective Point of View
1.6.2 Third Person Point of View OR Omniscient Point of
View
1.6.3 First Person Point of View
1.6.4 Limited Omniscient Points of View
1.6.5 Second Person Point of view
1.6.6 Multiple Points ofView
1.7 Let’s Sum up
1.0 OBJECTIVE
The Unit deals with the Plot, Character, Setting, Narrative,
Themes, Point of view of Novel and Short Story and it will help
readers to understand the basic concepts that give fiction and the
short stories their coherence and appeal.
1.1 PLOT
A plot is a causal sequence or arrangement of inc idents or
events in the story. To understand it well, read the following story:
“Bablu, a boy of fifteen, studies hard to master the English
language but finds it difficult du e to his vernacular background. He
takes the guidance of many teachers but finally realizes that he has
to start to speak inEnglish if he wants to master it. He stands in
front of the mirror for hours, and talks to himself and readsmunotes.in

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passages from newspapers , and watches televi sion news and films
in English. Gradually he realizes that it’s not as di fficult as he
thought it to be. Finally ,he manages to master the language, and
becomes a famous speaker.”
Now the story of Bablu has three parts -
1.Bablu’s ignorance of the English language and his
determination to master it.
2.His failures to learn the language with teachers.
3.Hisself-study and his success.
If you carefully read, you will find out that these three parts
form the beginning, the middle and the end of Bablu’s story.
If I replace the end with the beginning, what will happen?
For example: “Bablu speaks English of International
standard sat the starting of the story itself. When a listener asks
him the secret of his mastery over the language, he narrates him
thewhole story of his struggle and self-study .”
What have I done? I just rearranged the incident sb y
replacing them. Why did I do that?
Well, I actually changed the plot of the story to make it more
interesting.
So, then, what do we mean by Plot? The P lotis an
arrangement or rearrangement of the incidents of a story so as to
make it more interesting.
Where else do we see such examples? Well, in ci nemas, in
dramas and in novels. The writer plays with the structure of the
story to catch hold of the reader and keep amazing us with his
shocking treatment.
So the plot, in other words ,is the reason for the th ings that
happen in the story. The plot draws the reader into the characters’
lives and helps the reader understand the choices that the
characters make.
A plot's structure is the way in which the story elements are
arranged. Writers vary thestructure of the story depend ing on the
needs of the genre. For example, in a mystery, the author will
withhold plot exposition until the end ofthe story.
A story, however, is not always a straight line from the
beginning to the end. Sometimes, there is a shifting of time and this
is the way we learn what happened and why; it keeps us amazedmunotes.in

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throughout the story. Good and well-narrated stories always have
allt h ep l o te l e m e n t si nt h e m .
1.2 CHARACTER
There are two meanings tothe word character:
1)The person in a work of fiction -as h o r ts t o r y , an o v e l, a drama,
a poem or a cinema. For ex ample, Rancho, Raju and Farhan -
the characters in the film Three Idiots.
2)The characteristics of a person. We use this word to show the
features of a person’s qualities. The first meaning, however, is
expected in the context of the present study.
So, a person in a work of fiction -the hero or the villain, an d
other persons are all known as the characters in that work of art.
At least one character is clearly central to a story with all
major events having some connection to this character.
She/he is also known as the protagonist of the story. The
character in opposition to the main character is called the
antagonist.
The Characteristics of a Person:
In order for a story to seem real to the reader, its characters
must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives
the reader ab out the chara cters themselves. The author may reveal
a character in several ways:
a)His/her physical appearance.
b) What he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams.
c)What he/she does or does not do.
d) What others say about him/her and how others react to him/her .
Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated
and life -like (resemble real people) .
Characters are...
1. Individual -round, many -sided and complex personalities.
2. Developing -dynamic, many -sided personalities that change (for
better or worse) by the end of the story.
3. Static -Stereotypes; they have one or two characteristics that
never change and are often over emphasized.munotes.in

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1.3 SETTING
Writer s describe the world they know. Sights, sounds,
coloursand textures are all vividly painted in words as an a rtist
paints images on canvas. A writer imagines a story to be happening
in a place tha ti sr o o t e di nh i so rh e rm i n d . The location of a story's
actions, along with the time in which it occurs, is the s etting.
The s etting is created by language. How many or how few
details we learn is up to the author. Many authors leave a lot of
these details up to the reader's imagination.
Some or all of these aspects of setting should be considered
when examining a story:
a)Place -geographical location. Where is the action of the story
taking place?
b)Time-When is the story taking place? ( historical period, time of
day, year, etc.)
c)Weather conditions -Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
d)Social condi tions -What is the daily life of the characters like?
Does the story contain local colour (writing that focuses on the
speech, dress, mannerisms, custom s, etc. of a particular place)
e)Mood or atmosphere -What feeling is created at the begi nning
of the story? Is it bright and cheerful or dark and frightening?
Thus the setting is an important tool to make the story
interesting and simple to understand.
1.4 NARRATIVE
Narrative means story, and stories are written or spoken.
The narrative genre is us ed in factual stories, imaginary genre
stories, poems, historical fiction, science fiction stories, horror
stories, adventure romance, parables, slice of life short stories,
informal letters, diary entries, autobiographies, biographies, cartoon
strips and photo stories. When we tell our friends about the things
we have been doing, we are actually telling them or narrating them
stories.
While telling them such sto ries we embellish them,
emphasize certain things, omit events which are not important, give
examples, and also make our language interesting. We actually are
narrating them the story.munotes.in

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1.4.1 Parts of the narrative:
Introduction -The introduction or the opening of a nar rative is an
attention grabber. The beginning is about the place where the story
takes place when the story takes place, theintroduction of the
characters, and the introduction of the question or the issue that is
going to be further narrated in the next parts of the story.
Body: This part is the main narrative where the story is developed.
Conclusion: the conclusion is the climax, the resolution of the
issue raised in t he introduction, or the logical end of the story.
A good narrative should have the beginning with a good
introductio n, it should be built around a theme or themes, the
characters and the locations should becarefully create d,t h e
incidents should be dramatically or effectively arranged, the main
issue should be properly dealt with, the past tense should be used.
1.5 T HEMES
The theme or themes is/are the major subject the write rh a s
written in his/her story. It conveys his/ her message. For examp le
the subjects like education, poverty, war, adventure, women
empowerment ,etc. can be themes of short stories of fictions. The
theme of a fable is its moral. The theme of a parable is its teaching.
The theme of a piece of fiction is its view oflife and how people
behave.
In fiction, the theme is no ti n t e n d e dt ot e a c ho rp r e a c h.In
fact, it is not presented directly at al l.You have to extract it from the
characters, action and setting that make up the story. In other
words, you must figure out the theme yourself.
The writer's task is to communicate on a common ground
with the reader. Although the particulars of your e xperience maybe
different from the details of the story, the general underlying truths
behind the story may be just the connection that both you and the
writer are seeking.
Here are some ways to uncover the theme in a story:
i.Check out the title. Sometimes it tells you a lot about the theme.
ii.Notice r epeating patterns and symbols. Sometimes these lead
you to the theme.
iii.What allusions are made throughout the story?
iv.What are the details and particulars in the story?
v.What greater meaning may they have?munotes.in

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Remember that theme, plot and structure are inseparable, all
helping to inform and r eflect back on each other. Also, be aware
that a theme we determine from a st ory never completely explains
the story. It is simply one of the elements that make up the whole.
1.6 POINT OF VIEW
Remember, someone is always between the reade ra n dt h e
action of the story. That someone is telling the story from his or her
own point of view. This angle of vision, the point of view from which
the people, events and details of a story are viewed, is important to
consider when reading a story.
Types of Point of View:
1.6.1 Objective Point of View:
With the objective point of view, the writer tells what happens
without stating more than can be inferred from t he story's action
and dialogue. The narrator never discloses anything about what the
characters think or feel, remaining a detached observer. It ’s like a
camera is showing you an action. When you watch a video without
any voice or sound, you yourself need to observe and interpret itto
come to a conclusion.
To understand better, read the following story:
A wife asked her husband, “Darling, tell m e how much you
love me?”
“A lot,” said the husband.
“A lot means nothing concrete. Tell me exactly how much?”
She insisted.
“Means I can do anything for you.”
“Anything means?”
“Anything!”
“Means you can die for me?” She asked further.
“Maybe !Y e a h ,Ig u e s s! Why not?”
“Okay, then. Jump from the top of the building, and prove.”
The husband jumped from the top of the building and died.
When the police asked her about the reason forthe jump, she
replied, “Well, he wanted to prove that he loved me.” (Story by Dr.
Kishan Pawar)
In this story, the writer has not told anything about the
following things:munotes.in

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The time, place, year, age of the characters, their natures
and the end whether the police arrests the wife? The writer has
objectively, like a camera shown us the story. He has left these
details to be guessed by the readers. Such astyle is used by the
writers to write short stories and novels too.
1.6.2 Third Person Point of View OROmniscient Point of View:
The third person means the use of third person pronouns
such as -he, she, it and they. Here the narrator does not participate
in the action of the story as one of the characters but lets us know
exactly how the characters feel. We learn about the characters
through this outside voice. To address the ch aracters in the story,
the writer uses the third person pronouns -he, she, it and they.
The difference between Objective Point of View and Third
Person point of View is interesting to know. In the objective type,
the writer does not comment on the nature o f the incidents in the
story, the behavio uralpatterns of the characters, the hidden
meanings of their dialogues etc. in the Third person type, however,
the writer adds his authorial comme nts, unlike the objective type.
The author with the use of third per son point of view, for example,
while writing the s tory discussed above, will talk about =who the
husband and wife are ,t h e i ra g e ,t h a tt h e yw e r ef e du pw i t ht h e i r
lives,w e r e overtired and frustrated wi th their lives, the police
arrests or do not arrest the wife, so on and so forth.
Third person point of view is also known as the omniscient
point of view. Why? The reason is interesting. Omniscient,
Omnipotent and Omnipresent are th et h r e eu n i q u eq u a l i t i e so fG o d .
Omniscient m eans one who knows everything, Omnipotent means
one who has the potential or t he power to do everything, and
Omnipresent means one who ispresent everywhere. The writer
who uses this point of view is in no way lesser than the God of the
novel, or the story he is writing. He knows everything about
everything in the story, he is present everywhere in the story, he
can do anything =forexample, he can make a rat speak, he can
organize a race between a rabbit and a tortoise and can make the
tortoise win. Only Godcan make it possible otherwise. Hence ,the
name omniscient.
1.6.3 First Person Point of View:
In the first person point of view, the narrator participates in
the action of the story. He or sh ei so n eo f the characters in the
story. Generally, it’s used to write autobiographies. This narrator
tells only the incidents that are known to him/her. Unlike the third
person point of view, he cannot tell anything about the actions
taking place in absen tia, nor can he tell anything about the thoughts
inthe minds of the characters.munotes.in

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1.6.4 Limited Omniscient Points of View:
A narrator whose knowledge is limited to one character,
either major or minor, has a limited omniscient point of view. Here
the wri ter tells the detailed story of that character only.
1.6.5 Second Person Point of view:
In this narrative technique, the writer uses the second
person pronoun “you” to address the reader. For example -
“At the age of twenty -five, someone meets you and t ells you
that you are not the son of Catholic parents, but the son of a
terrorist who was shot down by the police when you were a
sixmonth infant. What will you think? Your life will be shattered to
pieces…”
1.6.6 Multiple Points Of View:
Sometimes the writer uses all of the above discussed points
of view or some of them depending on the choice of the author, and
the need ofthe story. Ex amples of this inl i t e r a t u r ea r eE m i l y
Bronte’s Wuthering Heights and William Faulkner’s Sound and
Fury.
1.7 LET’S SUM UP
Thus in this Unit,we have tried to understand the basic
elements of narrative writing -novel and short stories. The
knowledge of these terms helpsus understand and appreciate the
prescribed texts.
munotes.in

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9Unit -2
LITERARY TERMS PART II: TYPES OF
NOVEL
Unit Structure
2.0 Objective
2.1 Types of Novel
2.1.1. Bildungsroman Novel
2.1.2.Picaresque Novel
2.1.3. Epistolary Novel
2.1.4. Stream of Consciousness
2.1.5. Novel of Social Reality
2.1.6. Psychological Novel
2.1.7. Historical Novel
2.1.8. Science Fiction
2.1.9. Gothic Novel
2.1.10. Graphic Novel
2.2. Let’s Sum Up
2.3. Important Questions
2.4. Reference
2.0 OBJEC TIVE
The objective of the Unit is to make the readers acquainted
with different types of novels like Bildungsroman novel, picaresque
novel, epistolary novel, stream of consciousness, novel of social
reality, psychological novel, historical novel, s cience fiction, gothic
novel and graphic novel. It will help one to understand the minor
differences that bring out special changes and ensure the typicality
of each type of novels.
2.1TYPES OF NOVEL
2.1.1Bildungsroman Novel
Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the
psychological and moral growth of its main character from his or
her youth to adulthood. It is a story of the growing up of a sensitive
person who looks for answers to his questions through diffe rent
experiences. Generally, such a novel starts with a loss ormunotes.in

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10atragedy that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she
leaves on a journey to fill that vacuum.
During the journey, the protagonist gains maturity gradual ly
and with difficulty. Us ually the plot depicts a conflict between the
protagonist and the values of society. Finally, he or she accepts
those values and they are accepted by the society, ending the
dissatisfaction. Such a type of novel is also known as a coming -of-
age novel.
Bildungsroman novel is the story of formation, education and
cultural growth of the hero that mainly aims at teaching moral
lessons to the readers. The birth of the Bildungsroman is normally
dated to the publication of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship by
Joha nn Wolfgang Goethe in 1795 –96, or, sometimes, to Christoph
Martin Wieland's Geschichte des Agathon in 1767. Although the
Bildungsroman arose in Germany, it has had extensive influence
first in Europe and later throughout the world. Thomas Carlyle
translate d Goethe’s novel into English, and after its publication in
1824, many British authors wrote novels inspired by it. In the 20th
century, it spread sto Germany, Britain, France, and several other
countries around the globe.
In a Bild ungsroman, the goal is maturity and the protagonist
achieves it gradually and with difficulty. The genre often features a
main conflict between the main character and society. Typically, the
values of society are gradually accepted by the protagonist and
he/she is ultimately ac cepted into society —the protagonist's
mistakes and disappointments are over. In some works, the
protagonist is able to reach out and help others after having
achieved maturity.
There are numerous examples of Bildungsroman or coming -
of-age novels in Engl ish literature. Let us briefly analyze some:
Example -1
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Henry Fielding
This is among the famous Bildungsroman examples written
in a comic mode. Squire Allworthy, a wealthy landowner, discovers
a foundling, Tom Jones, on his property. Tom Jones grows up into
a lusty but honest young man in contrast to his half -brother Blifil
who was a pers onification of hypocrisy. Tom falls in love with
“Sophia Western” but it is opposed by her father, on account that
he is a “bastard”. After this loss, Tom undergoes many experiences
and finally it is revealed that Tom is a son of Mr. Summer -af r i e n d
of All worthy, and Mrs. Waters who is Allworthy’s sister. Therefore,
society accepts him when it is established that he is not a bastard.munotes.in

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11Example 2
David Copperfield , a novel by Charles Dickens
This can be termed as a Bildungsroman as it traces the life
of David Copperfield from his childhood to maturity. His mother re -
marries a man named Edward Murdstone who sends David to work
for a wine merchant in London from where he runs away to finally
reach his eccentric aunt Betsey Trotwood who agrees to raise him
and calls him “Trot”. We see a change in David’s “undisciplined
heart “as after Dora’s death, he does some soul searching and
chooses sensible Agnes as his wife, a woman who had always
loved him .
Example 3
James Joyce’s novel ,APortrait of the Artist as a Young Man
This is a coming -of-age story of a character, Stephen
Dedalus. The story starts with Stephen in a boarding school at the
age of sixteen. One day he goes back to his room. He falls sick due
to the unbearable load of his sins and decides to change himself.
He goes to the church for a confession where the cleric is
exceptionally kind. Thus, Stephen discovers another path in his life
as he becomes a cleric. Later in the novel, Stephen’s life takes
another turn. He realizes that he cannot waste his life as a cleric.
He needs to live in society and be innovative like an artist.
2.1.2. Picaresque Novel
Picaresque has derived its name from the Spanish word,
‘picaro’ meaning ‘rogue’ or ‘rasc al’. The picaresque novel is a
popular sub -genre of prose fiction. It is usually satirical and depicts
the adventures of a roguish hero of low social class. It is a realistic
and often humorous. The protagonist lives by his/her wits in a
corrupt society. M . H. Abrahms says, “Picareque fiction is realistic
in manner, episodic in structure …and often satiric in aim.” Thus,
character is a rogue, the plot of the picaresque novel is episodic
and loose, the manner is realism and the purpose is to satirize the
social foibles.
This novel originated in sixteenth century Spain and
flourished throughout Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. It continues to influence modern literature. Although the
elements of Chaucer and Boccaccio have a picaresque fee la n d
are likely t o have contributed to the style. The modern picaresque
begins with Lazarillo de Tormes, which was published anonymously
in Antwerp and Spain in 1554. It is variously considered either the
first picaresque novel or at least the antecedent of the genre. Themunotes.in

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12title character, Lazarillo, is a pícaro who must live by his wits in an
impoverished country full of hypocrisy.
In other European countries, the Spanish novels were read
and imitated. In Germany, Grimmelshausen wrote Simplicius
Simplici ssimus (1669), the most important of non -Spanish
picaresque novels. It describes the devastation caused by the
Thirty Years' War. In Le Sage's Gil Blas (1715) is a classic example
of the genre, which in France had declined into an aristocratic
adventure. I nB r i t a i n ,t h eb o d yo fT o b i a sS m o l l e t t ' sw o r ka n dD a n i e l
Defoe's Moll Flanders (1722) are considered picaresque, but they
lack the sense of religious redemption of delinquency that was very
important in Spanish and German novels. The triumph of Moll
Flande rs is more economic than moral. The classic Chinese novel
Journey to the West is considered to have considerable picaresque
elements. Having been written in 1590, it is contemporary with
much of the above -but is unlikely to have been directly influenced
by the European genre.
2.1.3. Epistolary Novel
An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of
documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries,
newspaper clippings and other documents are sometimes used.
Recently, electronic "documents" such as recordings and radio,
blogs, and e -mails have also come into use. The word epistolary is
derived through Latin from the Greek word epistole, meaning a
letter (see epistle). The epistolary form can add greater realism to a
story because it mimics t he workings of real life. It is ,thus,able to
demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device
of an omniscient narrator.
There are two theories on the genesis of the epistolary
novel. The first claims that the genre originated from no vels with
inserted letters, in which the portion containing the third person
narrative in between the letters was gradually reduced. The other
theory claims that the epistolary novel arose from miscellanies of
letters and poetry: some of the letters were t ied together into a plot.
Both claims have some validity. The Spanish "Prison of Love"
(1485), the first epistolary novel, by Diego de San Pedro belongs to
a tradition of novels in which a large number of inserted letters
already dominated the narrative.
There are three types of epistolary novels: Monologic which
gives the letters of only one character, like Letters of a Portuguese
Nun; Dialogic which gives the letters of two characters, like Mme
Marie Jeanne Riccoboni's Letters of Fanni Butlerd (1757); an d
Polylogic which gives the letters of three or more characters.munotes.in

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13The founder of the epistolary novel in English is said to be
James Howell who writes of prison, fore ign adventure and the love
of women in his “Familiar Letters”. The first novel to expose the
complex play that the genre allows was Aphra Behn's ‘Love -Letters
Between a Nobleman and His Sister ’(1684). Behn explored a
realm of intrigue with letters that fall into the w rong hands, with
faked letters, with letters withheld by protagonists. The epistolary
novel as a genre became popular in the 18th century in the works
of Samuel Richardson such as Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1749).
Henry Fielding's Shamela (1741) is writte na sap a r o d yo fP a m e l a .
In it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling
her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikely of
circumstances. The epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the late
18th century. Jane Austen also t ried her hand at the epistolary in
juvenile writings. It is thought that her lost novel "First Impressions",
which was redrafted to become Pride and Prejudice, may have
been epistolary: “Pride and Prejudice ”contains an unusual number
of letters quoted in full and some play a critical role in the plot.
2.1. 4. Stream OfC o n s c i o u s n e s s
In literature, stream of consciousness is a method of
narration that describes in words the flow of thoughts in the minds
of the characters. The term was initially coined by a psychologist
William James in his research “The Principles of Psychology”. He
writes: it is nothing joined; it flows. A ‘river’ or a ‘stream’ is the
metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it
hereafter, let’s call it the stream o f thought, consciousness, or
subjective life. (https://literarydevices.net/stream -of-consciousness)
Another appropriate term for this device is “Interior
monologue” where the individual thought process of a character
associated to his or her actions are p ortrayed in theform of a
monologue which addresses the character itself. Therefore, it is
different from the “dramatic monologue” or “Soliloquy” where the
speaker addresses the audience or the third person.
The Stream of Consciousness style of writing is marked by
the sudden rise of thoughts and lack of punctuations. The use of
this narration mode is generally associated with the modern
novelist and short story writers of the 20th century. Let us look at
some examples of this narrative technique in li terature, as follows:
1. James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his
novel “Ulysses” which describes the day in life of a middle -aged
Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. Read the
following excerpt:
“He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a
mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. Thatmunotes.in

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14young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping
morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his
book satchel on him bandolie r wise, and in it a goodly hunk of
wheaten loaf, a mother’s thought.”
These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom. He thinks of the
younger Bloom. The self -reflection is achieved by the flow of
thoughts that takes him back to his past.
2. Another 20th centu ry writer that followed James Joyce’s
narrative method was Virginia Woolf. Let us read an excerpt from
her novel “Mrs. Dalloway”:
“What a lark! What a plunge! For so it always seemed to me
when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which I can hear now, I
burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the
open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air
was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave;
chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I th en was) solemn,
feeling as I did, standing there at the open window, that something
awful was about to happen …”
By voicing their internal feelings, the writer gives freedom to
the characters to travel back and forth in time. Mrs. Dalloway went
out to buy flower for herself and on the way her thoughts moves in
past and present giving us an insight into the complex nature of her
character.
3. We notice the use of this technique in David Lodge’s novel “The
British Museum Is Falling Down”. It is comic novel that imitates the
stream of consciousness narrative techniques of the writers like
Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf.
Below is an excerpt from Chapter 3 of the novel:
“It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of
metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared
by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of
closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists?
One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more,
but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of
events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably
came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or
Personages, dimly visible in t he interior. The policeman saluted,
and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring ‘Philip’, ‘Tony’,
‘Margaret’, ‘Prince Andrew’.”
We see the imitation of the typical structure of the stream -of-
conscious narrative technique of Virginia Woolf. We notice themunotes.in

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15integration of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so
typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting
clauses “he thought” and “he wondered” in the middle of the
reported clauses.
It is a style of writing developed by a g roup of writers at the
beginning of the 20th century. It aimed at expressing in words the
flow of a character’s thoughts and feelings in their minds. The
technique aspires to give readers the impression of being inside the
mind of the character. Therefore, the internal view of the minds of
the characters sheds light on plot and motivation in the novel.
2.1.5. Novel ofS o c i a lR e a l i t y
Realism is understood by two ways: a literary movement of
novel writing during the 19thcentury and a mode of literary forms
which represent human life as it is. Realistic fiction is often opposed
to romantic fiction. The romantic fiction presents life as more
picturesque, fantastic, adventurous, or heroic than actuality,
whereas realistic f iction represents life as it really is. Realistic novel
may have any kind of plot form; it may be tragic or comic or satiric,
or romantic. It is characterized by the effect of realism which
represents complex characters with mixed motives and the
character s are rooted in a social class and they undergo everyday
experience.
Novel of social reality is also known as social problem novels
or realist fiction. The origin of this novel goes back to the 18th
century though it gained popularity during the 19th cen tury. It was
Victorian Era which witnessed reaction to industrialization, social,
political and economic issues and movements. In the 1830s ,the
social novel saw resurgence as emphasis on widespread reforms
of government and society emerged, and acted as a literary means
of protest and awareness of abuses by government, industry and
other repercussions suffered by those who did not profit from
England's economic prosperity. The sensationalized accounts and
stories of the working class poor were directed tow ard middle class
audiences to help incite sympathy and action towards pushing for
legal and moral changes, as with the Reform Act of 1832, and
crystallized different issues in periodicals and novels for a growing
literate population. Different sub -genres o f the social novel included
the industrial novel that focused on the country’s working class rural
and urban poor and also the later ‘condition of England’ novel that
was geared toward education, suffrage and other social
movements. Deplorable conditions i nfactories and mines; the plight
of child labor and endangered women; and the constant threat of
rising criminality and [epidemics] due to over -crowding and poor
sanitation ,were al l laced into the story lines of these novels.munotes.in

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16Many of the different nove ls held a moral or supernatural
element that linked reform to Christianity and played on the
perception that the middle class were more economically sound but
also more devoted to their religiosity, therefore more prone to assist
the lower classes before t he aristocracy. An example of this was
Charles Dickens' Christmas Carol where the lead character
Scrooge is instructed by several ghosts to live a Christian life and
help his less fortunate neighbo urs and employees. Though the
majority of these novels were to sensationalize and shock the
middle class into political action and reform work, opposition
against these novels was rapid throughout their peak years during
the 19th century. An element of the growing mass culture that came
with more economic prosperi ty and literacy in the middle class led
to a saturation of literature that combined the respectable and the
scandalous and meant wealth to the authors, editors and
distributors of these novels. This was often read as an
underhanded way for outsiders to mak e a profit off the struggles of
disenfranchised, uneducate d and underemployed populations. But
the genre of the social problem novel was also an indicator of the
social changes within Victorian society. Therefore ,the social novels
did not determine the st ructures, government or institutions of the
nation but the social novel was determined and was a reflection of
the nation. A debate rages over whether or not the social novel
ever declined but elements of the genre have permeated into
different mediums sin ce the 1850s. The social problem novels were
not confined to England but were written throughout Europe and
the United States. An example is Russian author Leo Tolstoy, who
championed reform for his own country, particularly in education
and added his nove ls“War and Peace ”and “Anna Karenina ”to the
realist fiction genre. Newspapers would continue to sensationalize
stories ;novels would continue to inspire and thrill the public ;and
elements of social novels still provide the messages of
marginalized parts of different societies today.
2.1.6. Psychological Novel
A psychological fiction, also called psychological realism, is
a specific sub -genre of the wide ranging thriller genre. This genre
often incorporates elements from the mystery and the thriller
genr es. The thrillers focus not only on plot over fictional characters
but also emphasize on intense physical action over the character's
psyche. Psychological thrillers tend to reverse this formula to a
certain degree. It emphasizes the characters just as muc hi fn o t
more so than the plot. Psychological novel emphasizes on interior
characterizat ion, the motives, circumstances and internal action
which spring from and develops external action. The psychological
novel is not content to state what happens but goe so nt oe x p l a i n
the motivation of this action. In this type of writing character and
characterization are more than usually important. And they often
delve deeper into the mind of a character than novels of othermunotes.in

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17genres. The psychological novel can be call ed a novel of the "inner
man," so to say. In some cases, the stream of consciousness
technique as well as interior monologues may be employed to
better illustrate the inner workings of the human mind at work.
Flashbacks may also be featured. While these th ree textual
techniques are also prevalent in "modernism," there is no deliberate
effort to fragment the prose or compel the reader to interpret the
text.
The Tale of Genji, written in 11th century Japan, has often
been considered the first psychological novel. In the west, the origin
of the psychological novel can be traced as far back as Giovanni
Boccaccio's 1344 Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta. In Mill on the
Floss, George Eliot presents the glimpse of Maggie’s innermost
desires, her hopes and fears. The 20thcentury has witnessed
Stream of consciousness technique which enables novelists to take
their readers into the minds of the characters, revealing character’s
thoughts and feelings. In psychological novel the novelist attempts
to capture the flux of time without caring the time sequence.
2.1.7. Historical Novel
Historical novel refers to a novel written and set in a
particular time of history depicting the spirit, manners, and social
conditions of that time. Usually the specific historical period is well
before the time of writing, sometimes one or two generation s
before, sometimes several centuries. The historical novel attempts
a serious study of the relationship between persona lf o r t u n e sa n d
social conflicts. The popular form known as the historical or
'costume' romance tends to employ the period setting only a sa
decorative background to the leading chara cters. The tense is
always past and the subject matter is either public or private event.
The character is either actual historical figure or one invented by
novelist whose destiny is involved with actual event .M . H . A b r a m s
writes: “The historical novel not only takes its setting and some
characters and events from history but makes the historical events
and issues crucial for the central characters and narrative.”
Sir Walter Scott and James Fennimore Cooper are the
historical novelists from British and American literatures
respectively. In English ,Thackeray carried forward the tradition of
this genre. Other prominent successors to Scott included Manzoni,
Pushkin, Gogol, Hugo, Merimee, Stendhal, Balzac and T olstoy.
György Lukács, in his ‘The Historical Novel ’,a r g u e st h a t
Scott is the first fiction writer who saw history not just as a
convenient frame in which to stage a contemporary narra tive but
rather as a distinct social and cultural setting. His novels of Scottish
history such as ‘Waverley ’(1814) and ‘Rob Roy ’(1817) focus upon
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18groups in order to explore the development o f society through
conflict. His ‘Ivanhoe ’(1820) gains credit for renewing interest in
the Middle Ages. Victor Hugo's ‘The Hunchback of Notre Dame ’
(1831) furnishes another 19th century example of the romantic -
historical novel as does Leo Tolstoy's ‘War a nd Peace ’.I nt h e
United States, James Fennimore Cooper was a prominent author of
historical novels. In French literature, the most prominent inheritor
of Scott's style of the historical novel was Balzac. The genre of the
historical novel has also permitte d some authors, such as the
Polish novelist Boles ławPrus in his sole historical novel, ‘Pharaoh ’,
to distance themselves from their own time and place to gain
perspective on society and on the human condition, or to escape
the depredations of the censor. In some historical novels, major
historic events take place mostly off -stage, while the fictional
characters inhabit the world where those events occur. Robert
Louis Stevenson's Kidnapped recounts mostly private adventures
set against the backdrop of the J acobite troubles in Scotland.
Charles Dickens's Barnaby Rudge is set amid the Gordon Riots,
and A Tale of Two Cities in the French Revolution. In some works,
the accuracy of the historical elements has been questioned, as in
Alexandre Dumas' Queen Margot. Postmodern novelists such as
John Barth and Thomas Pynchon operate with even more freedom,
mixing historical characters and settings with invented history and
fantasy, as in the novels The Sot Weed Factor and Mason & Dixon
respectively. A few writers creat e historical fiction without fictional
characters. One example is ‘I, Claudius ’by 20th century writer
Robert Graves; another is ‘The Masters of Rome ’series by Colleen
McCullough.
2.1.8. Science Fiction
Fantasy is a general term for a fictional works suc ha sd r e a m
vision, fairy tale, romance, science fiction etc. which portray the
fictional imaginary world peopled with magical and preternatural
characters. These terms encompass novels and short stories that
represent an imagined reality that is radically different in its nature
and functioning from the world of our ordinary experience. Often the
setting is another planet, or this earth projected into the future, or
an imagined parallel universe. The two terms are not sharply
differentiated but by and large ,science fiction is applied to those
narratives in which an explicit attempt is made to render plausible
the fictional world by reference to known or imagined scientific
principles or to a projected advance in technology and so on. This
transformation nee dn o tb eb r o u g h ta b o ut by a technological
invention but may involve some mutation of known biological or
physical reality, e.g. time travel, extraterrestrial invasion, ecological
catastrophe. Science fiction is a form of literary fantasy or romance
that of ten draws upon earlier kinds of utopian and apocalyptic
writing. Science Fiction, a.k.a. SF, the alternative form 'sci -fi' was
called 'scientific romances' by H. G. Wells and others.munotes.in

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19Mary Shelley's ‘Frankenstein ’(1818) is often considered a
precursor of s cience fict ionbut the basing of fictional worlds on
explicit and coherently developed scientific principles did not occur
until later in the nineteenth century, in such writings as Jules
Verne's ‘Journey to the Center of the Earth ’and H. G. Wells' The
War of the Worlds ’. Recent important authors of science fiction
include Isaac Asimov, Arthur Clarke, Ray Bradbury, J. G. Ballard,
and Doris Lessing. Science fiction is also frequently represented in
television and film; a notable inst ance is the ‘Star Trek ’series.
Fantasy is as old as the fictional utopias, and its satiric forms have
an important precursor in the extraordinary countries portrayed in
Jonathan Swift's ‘Gulliver's Travels ’(1726). Among the notable
recent writers of fant asy are C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien (The
Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings), whose works incorporate mat erials
from classical, biblical and medieval sources. Ursula Le Guin is a
major author of both science fiction and works of fantasy. Some
instances of science fiction and fantasy project a future utopia (Le
Guin's ‘The Dispossessed ’), or else attack an aspect of current
science or society by imagining their dystopian conclusion (George
Orwell's ‘Nineteen Eighty Four ’and Kurt Vonnegut's ‘Cat's Cradle ’);
and many writers use their imaginary settings, as Swift had in
‘Gulliver's Travels ’, for political and social satire (Aldous Huxley's
‘Brave New World ’and much of Vonnegut's prose fiction). See
utopia and dystopia and satire. A recent development is cyber punk,
a postmodern form of science fiction in which the events take place
partially or entirely within the "virtual reality" formed by computers
or computer networks, in which the characters may be either
human or artificial intelligences. A well -known ins tance is William
Gibson's ‘Neuromancer ’.
2.1.9. Gothic Novel
Gothic novel or gothic romance is a tale of terror and
suspense. It is a type of prose fiction which was inaugurated by
Horace Walpole's ‘The Castle of Otranto: A Gothic Story ’(1764)
and flour ished through the early nineteenth century. Some writers
followed Walpole's example by setting their stories in the medieval
period, while others set them in a Catholic countries such as Italy or
Spain. The locale was often a gloomy castle furnished with
dungeons, subterranean passages and sliding panels. The typical
story focused on the sufferings of an innocent heroine caused by a
cruel and lustful villain. Other elements comprise of the use of
ghosts, mysterious disappearances and other sensational and
supernatural occurrences. The principal aim of such novels was to
evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of horrors.
Many of them are n ow read mainly as period pieces but the best
opened up to fiction the realm of the irrational and of th e perverse
impulses and nightmarish terrors that lie beneath the orderly
surface of the civilized mind. Mary Shelley’s ‘Frankenstein ’(1818)
is about an ambitious scientist creates a monster whom he thenmunotes.in

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20spurns in revulsion. Discarded and loveless, monster embarks on
an orgy of blood revenge which ends in tragedy and hair -raising
horror.
The other typical examples of Gothic novels include William
Beckford's ‘Vathek ’(1786) which set in both medieval and Oriental
and it deals with both erotic and sadistic. Ann Radcliffe's ‘The
Mysteries of Udolpho ’(1794) and other highly successful Gothic
romances, and Matthew Gregory Lewis' ‘The Monk ’(1796), which
exploited, with considerable literary skill, the shock -effects of a
narrative involving rape, incest, murder, and diabolism. Jane
Austen made good -humored fun of the more decorous instances of
the Gothic vogue in ‘Northanger Abbey ’.
The term "Gothic" has also been extended to a type of fiction
which lacks the exotic setting of the earlier romances but develops
a brooding atmosphere of gloom and terror, represents events that
are uncanny or maca bre or melodramatically violent and often
deals with aberrant psychological states. In this extended sense ,
the term "Gothic" has been applied to William Godwin's ‘Caleb
Williams ’(1794), Mary Shelley's remarkable and influential
‘Frankenstein ’(1817), and the novels and tales of terror by the
German E. T. A. Hoffmann. Still more loosely, "Gothic" has been
used to describe elements of the macabre and terrifying in su ch
later works as Emily Bronte's ‘Wuthering Heights ’,C h a r l o t t e
Bronte's ‘Jane Eyre ’.
Thus ,Gothic novels were being written in the end of
eighteenth century when there was interest in the supernatural. Its
name is derived from the architecture, haunted medieval castle full
of terror and horror. The characters are supernatural, preternatural,
ghosts. It is set against the backdrop of sensational and violent
atmosphere. Its features are shared by modern popular fiction and
horror films.
2.1.10. Graphic N ovel
The term “graphic novel” is generally used to describe any
book in a comic format that resembles a novel in length and
narrative development. Graphic novels are a subgenre of “comics,”
which is a word you may also hear people use when referring to
this style of book.
Graphic novels are books written and illustrated in the style
of a comic book. The story is told using a combination of words and
pictures in a sequence across the page. Graphic novels can be any
genre and it can tell any kind of story. T he format is what makes the
story a graphic novel. The elements of graphic novels include text,
image s, word balloons, sound effects and panels. The graphic
novel in terms of storytelling resembles to ear ly cave drawings,munotes.in

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21hieroglyphics and medieval tapestr ies like the famous Bayeux
Tapestry.
Graphic novels are different from comic book. The former is
more serious and realistic while later is fantasy and science fiction.
The graphic novel is one story that reaches the end while comic
book is a series comin g up with new stories every month. The
mood of the graphic novel is serious and reflective while that of
comic book is suspenseful and exciting.
Graphic novels have all the elements of literature like plot,
characters, dialogue, setting and audience. In a ddition, it has its
own distinctive features such as balloon for speech and thought
which is used to express the character’s thoughts and words. Let’s
look at some key terms of graphic novels:
Panel : It is a box which contains the image or/and text
Frame : It is a border which surrounds and contains the panel
Gutter : It is a space which lies between panels
Caption : It is a box of text which gives details on the background
and setting of the scene. It is separated from speech and thought
bubbles. It is often written at the top or bottom of the panel.
Speech bubble : It contains the dialogue spoken by different
characters within a scene. It’s usually enclosed in a bubble or
another shape. It can also stand on its own, close to the speaker.
Thought bubble : It is similar to the speech bubble. It contains the
internal dialogue of a character and is usually shaped like a cloud
coming from the character’s head
Special effects sounds : words that give a sense of sound on the
page (e.g. BANG! THUMP!). The words are either bolded to make it
stand out on the page.
Close -up: It is an angle that zooms into an image like a character’s
face in order to allow closer view. This technique is sometimes
employed to convey a feeling of intimacy between the reader and
character. Look at the following images:munotes.in

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22
Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/8250435/ accessed on 28thMay
2018
Source: https://bcpscohort12graphicnovelsmanga.pbworks.com/w/fil
e/fetch/60031720/Capture999.PNG
Fan historian Richard Ky le coined the term "graphic novel" in
an essay in the November 1964 issue of the comics fanzine Capa -
Alpha. The term gained popularity in the comics community after
the publication of Will Eisner's A Contract with God (1978) and the
start of Marvel's Graph ic Novel line(1982) and became familiar tomunotes.in

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23the public in the late 1980s after the commercial successes of the
first volume of Art Spiegelman's Maus in 1986 and the collected
editions of Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns in 1986 and Alan
Moore andDave Gibbons' Watchmen in 1987. The Book Industry
Study Group began using "graphic novel" as a category in book
stores in 2001. ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_novel )
2.2. LET’S SUM UP
In this unit, we have tried to understand the novels and their
types. The idea is to define the type of novel followed by their
typical examples. And in the end a very brief historical account or
masterpieces of the genre is given so that a historical pers pective
can be developed for the further studies in this area.
2.3. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Write short notes on any four of the following:
a.Bildungsroman Novel
b.Picaresque Novel
c.Stream of Consciousness Novel
d.Novel of Social Reality
e.Psychological Novel
f.Histo rical Novel
2.Explain your views about the basic difference between the
Graphic Novel and Comic Book.
3.What is the genre of difference between the Novels on Science
Fiction and Gothic Novels? Also trace and explain their
similarities.
2.4. REFERENCE
Abrams , M. H. Glossary of Literary Terms.
Abrams, M. H &et. A Handbook of Literary Terms.
Chris Baldick ,Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms
munotes.in

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24Unit -3
AC R I T I C A LS T U D YO FT H E
PRESCRIBED SHORT STORIES
PART 1
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction to O’Henry
3.2 Summary of the story “The Last Leaf”
3.3 Themes in the story
3.4 Analysis of Major Characters
3.5 Introduction to H.H. Munro
3.6 Summary of the story “The Open Window”
3.7 Themes in the Story
3.8 Analysis of Major Characters
3.9 Introduction to Oscar Wilde
3.10 Summary of the story “The Nightingale and the Rose”
3.11 Themes in the Story
3.12 Analysis of Major Characters
3.13 Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To help the students understand the style and technique of the
authors -O’Henry, H.H. Munro and Oscar Wilde
To acquaint them with the critical summary prescribed in the
Syllabus -“The Last Leaf”, “The Open Window”, “The
Nightingale and the Rose”.
To help them study the themes and characters in the above
stories
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO O’HENRY
O’ Henry is the pen name of William Sydney Porter (1862 –
1910) and his works include a novel and some 600 short stories.
His talent for brilliant caricature, local tone, narrative dexterity and
empathy tempered by irony made him an immensely popular writer
in the last decade o f his life. From December 1903 to January 1906munotes.in

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25he produced a story a week for the New York World and also wrote
for magazines. His first book, Cabbages and Kings (1904), depicted
fantastic characters against striking Honduran backgrounds.
Both The Four Mil lion(1906) and The Trimmed Lamp (1907)
explored the lives of the people of New York in their daily routines
and quest for romance and adventure. Heart of the West (1907)
presented truthful and interesting tales of the Texas range. Then in
rapid succession came The Voice of the City (1908), The Gentle
Grafter (1908), Roads of Destiny (1909), Options (1909), Strictly
Business (1910) andWhirligigs (1910). Whirligigs contains perhaps
Porter’s funniest story, “The Ransom of Red Chief.”
Despite his fame, O’ H enry’s final years were marred by ill
health, a desperate financial struggle and alcoholism. A second
marriage in 1907 was miserable. After his death three more
collected volumes appeared: Sixes and Sevens (1911), Rolling
Stones (1912) and Waifs and Strays (1917). Later seven fugitive
stories and poems, O’ Henryana (1920), Letters to Lithopolis (1922)
and two collections of his early work on the Houston Post,
Postscripts (1923) and O’ Henry Encore (1939), were published.
Foreign translations and adaptations for other art forms, including
films and television, prove his universal application and appeal.
William Sydney Porter’s stories follow a standard formula,
dealing with commonplace events in the lives of ordinary people
and arriving at a surprise ending through chance. His two favourite
themes were the situation of the pretender and fate as the one
unavoidable reality of life. Some of his best known tales are “The
Gift of the Magi,” “A Municipal Report,” and “The Ransom of Red
Chief.” Stories which hark back to his North Carolina background
include “Let Me Feel Your Pulse” and “The Fool -Killer.” Although
his stories have been criticized for over -romanticizing and for their
surprise endings, they remain popular to this day for those very
reasons and becaus e of their author’s unique affection for the
foibles of human nature.
3.2 SUMMARY OF THE STORY ‘THE LAST LEAF
The Greenwich Village district of New York City has
attracted a great many artists. Among those who live there are a
woman from California name d Joanna (who prefers to be called
Johnsy) and a woman from Maine called Sue. The two women
soon become good friends and decide to share an apartment.
In November, there is an outbreak of pneumonia in
Greenwich Village. Johnsy, since she comes from the much
warmer climate of California and is not used to cold winters, soon
becomes seriously ill with the disease. A doctor tells Sue that he
does not believ e that Johnsy will get better because she has mademunotes.in

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26up her mind that she is going to die. He asks if Johnsy has anything
special to live for. Sue replies that her friend has always wanted to
paint the Bay of Naples. The doctor does not think that this is
enough.
Sue hears Johnsy counting backwards from twelve. It is
revealed that Johnsy is counting leaves on an ivy vine. The vine
grows on the wall of a neighbouring house which Johnsy can see
out of her window while lying in her bed. She says that, when she
first fell ill, there were more than a hundred leaves on the vine.
While she has been ill, the autumn winds have blown most of the
leaves away. There are now only four left. Johnsy is certain that
she will die when the last leaf falls. Sue tells her friend that this is
nonsense and tries to get her to take something to eat and drink.
Johnsy, however, is only interested in looking out of the window at
the vine. She is certain that the last leaf will fall and that she will die
before the end of the day.
Need ing a model for a magazine illustration which she is
drawing, Sue goes to see her downstairs neighbour Mr. Behrman.
Behrman, an elderly man who drinks too much gin, has been trying
unsuccessfully to make a living as an artist for forty years. For at
least twenty -five years, he has been talking about the masterpiece
which he will paint one day. However, he has not yet made a mark
on the canvas which he has set aside for his masterpiece. He
hardly ever paints anything now and makes a meagre living by
posing a s a model for younger artists. Sue tells Behrman about
how Johnsy thinks that her life is connected to the leaves on the
vine and that she will die when the last leaf falls. Behrman
dismisses this as nonsense.
That night is a stormy one. In the morning, J ohnsy expects
to find that the last leaf has fallen. She is surprised to find that there
is still one leaf on the vine. The leaf is still green at the base,
although the edges have turned yellow. Nevertheless, Johnsy
expects that the leaf will fall and tha t she will die before the end of
the day. When, after another stormy night, the leaf is still in place
the following morning, Johnsy asks for food and drink and talks
about how she plans to paint the Bay of Naples one day. The
doctor is confident that she will make a full recovery.
Sue is informed that Behrman has also caught pneumonia
and has been taken to hospital. He dies the following day. Sue tells
Johnsy that Behrman was found, after having gone out on a damp
and stormy icy cold night, wearing soakin g wet clothes and shoes.
Paintbrushes were found scattered around him as well as a palette
with green and yellow paint on it. Sue points out to Johnsy that the
one remaining leaf does not move in the wind. The reason for this
is because it was painted onto the wall by Behrman. Sue declares
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273.3 THEMES IN THE STORY
Death:
The Last leaf is a short story that narrates the treasure that
is life and the existence of faith and hope. It emphasises on the
importance of living and how we deal with the hindrances that we
battle through our life. Apart from this, the story gives us a hint that
God is the only one who knows that, how we ride on with life an d
chances against our judgment. The melodramatic and picturesque
setting of the story connects to the negative status of the main
character facing life and death.
The title of this story conveys the theme of death. The word
“Last” in the title means very close to death or close to the end.
There were almost a hundred leaves on the vine but they were
falling due to autumn. Autumn is the season when trees and plants
shed their leaves. At the same time Johnsy fell ill due to
Pneumonia. Pneumonia is the symbol of death and old Behrman
dies of it.
Pessimism and Optimism:
Johnsy the main character seems to be a very pessimistic
person. She has lost a positive attitude in life due to her disease
and she is waiting for her death.
Johnsy had made up her mind that she will die when the last
leaf falls. This signifies her mental and psychological condition and
describes the theme of pessimism.
Whereas, when Behrman comes to know of Johnsy’s fear of
the falling leaves he dismisses it as non -sense. In other words, he
exhibits optimism even when knowing of the dread of pneumonia
which was feared in the era when the story was written.
Self-Sacrifice:
By painting the leaf on the wall, Mr. Behrman risks his life for
Johnsy and shows his self -sacrificing, kind and noble nature.
He himself contracts pneumonia while painting the leaf on
the wall on an icy & cold winter night and dies and with this action
of his does not let Johnsy die.
Through the character of Mr. Behrman, O’ Henry is bringing
forth the sacrificing nature of man and it gives us a message that
self-sacrificing is a great deed and one has to be kind and gentle
towards others.munotes.in

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28Hope:
The theme of hope is very nicely presented in this story.
Doctor is a very optimistic person and he tries to make Johnsy
realize that if she has made her mind that she will die when the last
leaf falls that could be harmful for her. He tells her that he can only
provide her medicine that is 50 percent effective since she will to
get better lies with the patient.
O’ Henry convey s the message that one should never let go of
hope and remain optimistic in life. It is our state of mind which can
bring the worse or better for us in our lives.
Johnsy’s desire and aspiration to paint the Bay of Naples
gives a picture of hope and this h ope in life gives us the spirit of
living in this world.
The significance of the leaf is the hope of life. When Johnsy
sees the painted leaf against the wall through the window she
utters, it was to show her how wicked she was and it was a sin to
want to die.
Love and Friendship:
In last leaf O’ Henry describes friendship and bondage
between two friends. They care and love each other and Sue
supports Johnsy morally when she falls ill. She proves to be a great
support for Johnsy and she tries her level bes t to bring Johnsy
around to look at life with optimism.
Mr. Behrman also shows great deal of love for the girls. Although
he is a bit careless person, he really fawns over Johnsy and his
love is shown by his painting the leaf for the sake of her life.
“The Last Leaf” shows the theme of friendship through acts
of sacrifice, sincerity, love, loyalties etc.
3.4 MAJOR CHARACTERS
Behrman: Behrman lives in the same building as Sue and Johnsy.
His irritable and aggressive manner hides a tender heart and a
special attachment to Sue and Johnsy. He is characterized as an
unsuccessful painter with a strong Germanic accent whose main
artistic fun ction is as a model for other artists. When Sue tells
Behrman about Johnsy's fear that she will die when the last leaf
falls off the ivy vine, he responds to Sue emotionally, saying ''Gott!
dis is not any blace in which one so goot as Miss Yohnsy shall lie
sick. Some day I vill baint a masterpiece and ve shall all go away.
Gott! yes.'' Behrman ultimately gives his life for Johnsy, braving the
winter cold and wet, to paint a leaf that functions to keep Johnsy's
spirits up and give her more time to heal. John sy lives but Behrmanmunotes.in

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29dies for this sacrifice; the masterpiece Behrman has always wanted
to paint is that of the leaf and its impact on saving the life of
someone he cares about. This was a much more important thing
than earning money or seeking fame.
Sue: Sue is devoted to her friend and room -mate Johnsy who is
very ill at this time. Sue speaks to Johnsy about her fears of losing
Johnsy to her illness. Sue also talks openly with Old Behrman
about Johnsy, in a conversation that leads to the climax of the
story. She tells him that, ''She is very ill and weak and the fever has
left her mind morbid and full of strange fancies.'' At times, Sue
seems mature and independent, while at other times, she seems
young and naive. Sue doesn't believe that the influence of am a n
could affect Johnsy's recovery like the doctor suggests. Sue's
resistance could reflect either a deep inner strength and
independence or a naivete to the ways of love. Sue is courageous.
She maintains a cheerful, optimistic attitude in spite of the fact that
she is afraid for her friend and afraid for her own future.
Johnsy: In O' Henry's “The Last Leaf”, Sue and Johnsy are the two
young girls round whom the story goes on. The more striking of
these two friends is Johnsy whose morbid thinking makes the story
interesting. She is the main character of the story as her
psychological crisis builds up the theme of the story.Johnsy is from
California, and her spirits are dangerously low when we meet her.
She is sick with pneumonia, causing her to feel weak and
discouraged and she describes her state of mind to Sue, stating
that ''I'm tired of waiting. I'm tired of thinking. I want to turn loose my
hold on everything and go sailing down, down, just like one of those
poor, tired leaves.'' She used to have a d ream of going to Italy to
paint the Bay of Naples, but even that fails to inspire Johnsy to
recover as she lays stricken in her bed. Johnsy is under such strain
that she believes she will die when the last leaf has fallen from the
ivy vine outside of her w indow. The leaf symbolizes Johnsy's
dwindling hope of her own recovery. The decay of autumnal leaves
suggests her decaying life.
The doctor declares that the medical science can improve
the body but cannot improve the will power of a man and therefore,
Johnsy has little chance of survival if she clings to her strange
fancy. She loses all interest in life. Long illness and weariness of
life has bred in her this morbid feeling.
Johnsy, having survived, now considers the act of death
wish is nothing but a sin. Nature is not only violent and destructive
but it preserves life also. It is not the Leaf, rather life which
Behrman paints on the brick wall. Johnsy’s morbid feeling is the
central theme of the story and her revival is the ultimate outcome of
the st ory.munotes.in

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30Mr. Pneumonia
Mr. Pneumonia is a non -living character. He is characterized
as an unkind gentleman and the author capitalizes the P of
pneumonia, as if it is a name and proper noun, and gives
pneumonia the title of 'Mr.' One explanation for these choic es is
that the illness does indeed play a significant role in the story,
impacting all characters mentioned.
3.5 INTRODUCTION TO H. H. MUNRO
Saki, whose real name was Hector Hugh Munro, was born at
the height of English Imperialism in Akyab, Burma, on De cember
18, 1870, to British parents, Charles Augustus and Mary Frances
Munro. His father was a colonel in the British military. With
illustrator Francis Carruthers Gould, Saki collaborated on a
successful series of political cartoons. His unusual pseudonym
comes from the name of a character in Edward Fitzgerald’s
translation of The Rubaiyat ,al o n gp o e mb yt w e l f t h -century Persian
writer Omar Khayyam.
Saki is most widely known as a satirist of the English ruling
classes and his best known short story is “Th eO p e nW i n d o w . ”H e
is also famous for the character Reginald, who appears in a
number of his short stories. However, though he is primarily known
for his short fiction, including the volumes Reginald (1904),
Reginald in Russia (1910) and Beasts and Super -Beasts (1914), he
was also a novelist and playwright and the author of two works of
non-fiction, including the historical The Rise of the Russian Empire .
When World War I began, Saki joined the British military as an
enlisted man, although due to his high s ocial rank and education,
he could have enlisted as an officer or worked for military
intelligence. Indeed, he refused several offers of commission. He
died in action in France on November 14, 1916.
3.6 SUMMARY OF THE STORY “THE OPEN WINDOW”
Framton Nutt el is a single man in a new town. His sister has
arranged for him to meet several of her acquaintances to prevent
him from becoming lonely there. On one such visit, Vera, the 15 -
year-old niece of Framton’s latest host, Mrs. Sappleton, invites him
to sit an d gives him company while her aunt readies. As he waits,
Framton anxiously thinks about an appropriate way to compliment
the young girl while reserving the highest flattery for her aunt.
However, before he can decide what to say, Vera breaks the
silence an d asks Framton whether he knows many people in town.
He admits to being a newcomer who knows “hardly a soul”
and explains with a note of exhaustion that he is in the process ofmunotes.in

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31visiting all the contacts his sister made in the town four years ago
when she worked at the rectory. When Vera asks how well he
knows her aunt, he confesses that he doesn’t know much about her
besides her address and name. After answering, Framton wonders
to himself whether Mrs. Sappleton is married and he notes signs of
“masculine habitation” in the room.
After determining that her aunt is a virtual stranger to
Framton, Vera decides to inform him of her aunt’s “great tragedy”
which she states occurred three years ago, shortly after Framton’ s
sister left the town. Framton cannot imagine tragedy striking such a
calm country town but nevertheless listens intently to Vera’s story.
Vera points to a large, French -Style window in the room and
remarks how odd it is to keep it open on such a warm Oct ober
afternoon. Curious, Framton asks whether the window relates at all
to the tragedy. It does. Vera explains how three years ago her
aunt’s husband and two young brothers exited through that window
to go snipe -shooting. That summer was especially rainy a nd all
three of the men drowned in a “bog” while on their hunt. Tragically,
nobody recovered the bodies; since that day, her aunt has kept the
window open during the evening, ever -hopeful that her husband
and brothers will one day return, hunting dog in to wa n dw a l kb a c k
in through the window. Vera recounts the memories her aunt
shared of the hunting trio: Mr. Sappleton’s white raincoat slung over
his arm; the sound of her younger brother, Ronnie, teasingly
singing to her “Bertie, why do you bound?” Vera fi nishes the tragic
tale by confessing that on occasion she gets an eerie feeling that
the men will actually appear at the window.
Just as Vera finishes her story, Mrs. Sappleton enters. She
immediately apologizes for the open window and explains that
she’s left it open for her husband and brothers who should soon
return from shooting. She expects they’ll dirty her floors with their
muddy shoes. Paying very little attention to her guest, Mrs.
Sappleton continues to talk about shooting, lamenting how few
snipe there are this season and expressing hope that winter will
bring a healthy supply of ducks.
Framton listens, aghast at the grimness of the situation. He
attempts to shift the conversation away from the hunting expedition
but Mrs. Sappleton cannot be red irected, frequently looking
expectantly out the open window as she prattles on about hunting.
In a final desperate attempt to shift the conversation, Framton
explains the trouble he’s been having with his nerves. Mrs.
Sappleton cannot contain her yawn as F ramton details the differing
medical opinions regarding the proper diet for a man in need of a
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32Suddenly, Mrs. Sappleton jumps to attention and excitedly
remarks that the hunting party has finally returned. Unbelievingly,
Framton looks to Ver a, expecting to share with her a look of pity at
the depth of Mrs. Sappleton’s delusions. But Vera does not return
his gaze. Instead, she looks out, horrified, onto the lawn. Framton
quickly turns towards the window and notices the silhouettes of
three men , each armed, walking towards the house. One of them
has a white coat draped over his arm; following just behind is the
silhouette of a small hunting spaniel. The men enter the house and
one of them sings out “Bertie why do you bound?”
At that moment, Fra mton grabs his belongings and bolts out
of the house, narrowly escaping a collision with a passing cyclist on
the street.
One of the men, presumably Mr. Sappleton, asks Mrs.
Sappleton about Framton’s quick exit. She explains that the fleeing
man is named Mr. Nuttel and wonders why he looked as though “he
had seen a ghost”.
Just then, Vera interjects that it must have been the dog that
frightened Framton. She then tells a short, extravagant story
detailing Framton’s supposed deep phobia of dogs stemming fr om
an awful incident in which a pack of dogs chased him through a
South Asian cemetery and forced him to hide away all night in a
freshly -dug grave.
3.7 THEMES IN THE STORY
Escape
One of the recurring themes of this story is escaping from
reality. Fram pton Nuttel is on vacation in the country as a 'nerve
cure' to escape the pressures of daily life. With the best of
intentions, his sister asks him to meet with several of her friends to
prevent him from feeling sorry for himself, even though getting time
for himself is exactly what Nuttel wants.
When Mrs. Sappleton's husband and brothers go on a
hunting trip, that is their attempt to escape from everyday problems.
The niece engages in her own form of escape by telling elaborate
lies for no other reason th an to entertain herself. One of the lies
involves Mr. Nuttel hiding in a freshly dug grave in an effort to
escape dogs that are attacking him.
Wildness/Chaos vs. Order
Saki disrupts the otherwise placid house visit with such
strange occurrences as a supp osed ghost siting and a tragic death.
The open window is the prop through which this chaos enters the
orderly sitting -room scene. The particular type of chaos Sakimunotes.in

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33utilizes in this story is closely related to his fascination with the wild:
it involves wi ld dogs, dangerous terrain and a forest. Saki
commonly uses chaos to mock the customs of English society,
preferring the chaotic to the boring order of adult life.
Empowerment (at the expense of adults)
Closely related to Saki’ s preference of chaos over order is
his frequent positioning of children as foils for frail adult
characters. Vera, the child in this story, repeatedly bests the adult
characters with the power of her imagination. She finds a
particularly good target in Fr amton, whose nerves make him a
natural audience for her trickery.
Desire to Escape
Both Framton and Vera possess a strong desire to escape.
Vera seeks escape from the adult world she inhabits through her
imagination and storytelling. Framton is brought to the rural town
out of a desire to escape and recover from his nerve disorder.
While Vera’s escape proves fruitful and entertaining, Framton’s is
not so successful: it provokes more chaos than calm.
Power of Storytelling
Saki commonly uses the ‘story with in a story’ technique in
his works. He takes this a step further in “The Open Window” by
using Vera as storyteller to convey a theme about storytelling as an
art form. Saki and Vera both rely on the short story to fool their
audience. As one who relied mai nly on the short story to capture
his ideas, Saki includes storytelling in this work to communicate its
unique compatibility with the comedic tale.
Rural Calm
This theme is closely related to the chaos vs. order theme.
Several characters allude to the sup posed peacefulness of the rural
setting: Framton’s doctors suggest it as a retreat to calm his nerves
and Framton himself is surprised to find that tragedy would ever
occur in the rural landscape. Ironically, the setting becomes another
source of anxiety f or Framton with the addition of Vera’s
storytelling.
Satirization of Edwardian Society
Saki is well known for his satirical illustrations of Edwardian
English society. “The Open Window” is yet another example of
these satirical writings. Mockingly, Saki e xposes the absurdity of
the house visit during conversations between Framton and Mrs.
Sappleton. Both find the encounter “purely horrible” and Mrs.
Sappleton can barely contain a yawn as her guest discusses his
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343.8 ANALYSIS OF MAJOR CH ARACTERS
Framton Nuttel
Framton Nuttel has moved out to a more rural part of the
country as part of his ''nerve cure.'' His doctors want him to refrain
from any ''mental excitement and avoidance of anything in the
nature of violent physical exercise.'' Framton's sister worries that he
will ''bury (himself) down there and not speak to a living soul.'' To
help him get out and meet people, she provides him with invitations
to meet some of her acquaintances.
Upon entry to the home, Framton engag es in a discussion
with Mrs. Sappleton's niece. He falls under the spell of one of her
tales and is led to believe that Mrs. Sappleton's husband is
deceased. When he sees them walking toward the house from the
bogs, his nervous condition is agitated by the ir sudden appearance
and Framton runs off abruptly without a polite word of farewell.
Framton's fright could have been prevented had he recognized
certain verbal clues in his discussion with the niece.
Vera
Vera is introduced as the niece of Mrs. Sappleton. She is a
''young lady of fifteen.'' She also seems to be quite adept
atdeception or at the very least, telling tall tales. She is polite and
gracious when she meets Framton Nuttel. She tells Framton that
''her aunt will be down presently in the meantime you must try and
put up with me.'' After fulfilling the role of hostess, she then
proceeds to question Framton about his acquaintances and how
well he knows her aunt.
These types of questions should have given Framton cause
to worry as to why sh e is inquiring about his relationships with the
locals. She could be curious about him or trying to engage in polite
conversation. Vera, though, measures Framton to determine what
kind of story she can tell and have Framton believe it. She decides
to descr ibe how her aunt's husband passed away in the bogs.
When Framton sees this same man approaching the house shortly
after the story, he turns toward Vera ''with a look intended to
convey sympathetic comprehension.''
Vera just stares ''out through the open w indow with dazed
horror.'' She completely sells her story. Framton dashes out of the
house without a word or explanation. Vera shows how well she has
developed her craft when she indicates that Framton has ''a horror
of dogs.'' She proves to be very adept at telling stories and having
ready explanations to cover up any deficiencies. It would be
interesting to know what kind of young lady lies beneath all that
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35Mrs. Sappleton
Mrs. Sappleton is the epitome of British grace and manner.
She behaves as o ne would expect from a member of the
aristocratic class. She descends from the stairs ''with a whirl of
apologies for being late in making her appearance.'' She engages
Framton in idle small talk until she mentions the impending arrival
of her husband and brothers. Then she discusses how they will
''make a fine mess over my poor carpets.'' It would seem her
primary concern is about appearances.
3.9 INTRODUCTION TO OSCAR WILDE
Author Oscar Wilde is known for his acclaimed works
including The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Importance of Being
Earnest, as well as his brilliant wit, flamboyant style and infamous
imprisonment for homosexuality.
Ever sensitive, Wilde was profoundly affected by beauty and
lived and dre ssed flamboyantly compared to the typical Victorian
styles and mores of the time. He was often publicly caricatured and
the target of much moral outrage in Europe and America. His
writings such as Dorian Gray with homoerotic themes also brought
much contro versy for him but he was part of the ever -growing
movement of 'decadents' who advocated pacifism, social reform
and libertarianism. While many vilified him, he was making his mark
with style and wit and enjoyed much success with many of his
plays. Wilde wa s lauded by and acquainted with many influential
figures of the day including fellow playwright George Bernard
Shaw , American poets Walt Whitman andHenry Wadsworth
Longfellow and English author and social critic John Ruskin. His
works have inspired countless fellow authors, have been translated
in to numero us languages and have been adapted to the stage and
screen many times over. Fiction by Wilde includes The Canterville
Ghost (1887), The Happy Prince and Other Tales (1888), The
Portrait of Mr. W. H. (1889), A House of Pomegranates (1891),
Lord Arthur Sav ile's Crime (1891) and Intentions (essays, 1891).
His plays include Vera or the Nihilists (1880), The Duchess of
Padua (1883), Lady Windermere's Fan (1892), AF l o r e n t i n e
Tragedy (La Sainte Courtisane 1893), A Woman of No Importance
(1893), Salomé (1894), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The
Importance of Being Earnest (1895).
Though well known as a socialite, Wilde received little
recognition as an artist for many years until the play 'Lady
Windermere's Fan' established his literary fame in 1892. But
success was extremely short lived. On the opening night of his
masterpiece 'The Importance of Being Earnest' in 1895 the
Marquess of Queensberry, father of Lord Alfred Douglas with whom
Wilde was having a relationship, began a public vendetta againstmunotes.in

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36him. An ill -advised attempt to sue for slander led to conviction on a
moral charges and time in Reading Jail. On his release, Wilde lived
in self -imposed exile in France where he died in obscurity.
Throughout his life, Wilde retained a deep affection towards
children. His marriage in 1884 to Constance Lloyd produced two
boys to whom Wilde was devoted and her decision to keep them
from him following his conviction was devastating. Wilde's short
stories were written at a time when he had begun to moderate his
literary am bitions with financial needs. He, therefore, started to
work on a number of popular sub -genres –detective fiction, ghost
stories, fairy tales -a market opened up by the then recently
reduced printing costs and used to great effect by the likes of Arthu r
Conan Doyle. But Wilde, ever -contemptuous of writers who
'pandered to the masses', refused to produce straight genre -pieces.
Though his works conform to the character, plot and moral
frameworks of the various sub -genres, their essence is often
subverted, giving rise to witty but often subtle and complex
parodies.
3.10 SUMMARY OF THE STORY THE NIGHTINGALE
AND THE ROSE
“The Nightingale and the Rose” is a story in which the first
character that appears is a Student. This boy is sad because a girl
promised to dance with him on the condition that he brought her red
roses but he did not find any red rose; there were white roses and
yellow roses but he could not find red roses. While he was moaning
because his love would not dance with him, four characters from
nature started to talk about him. A little Green Lizard, a Butterfly
and a Daisy asked why he was weeping and the Nightingale said
that he was weeping for a red rose. The first three characters said
that weeping for a red rose was ridiculous. The Nighting ale, who
understood the Student, started to fly until she saw a Rose -tree.
She told him to give her a red rose and she promised, in exchange,
to sing her sweetest song but the Rose -tree told her that his roses
were white and he sent the Nightingale to his brother who grew
round the old sun -dial. The Nightingale went to see this new
Rose -tree and after promising to sing in exchange for a red rose,
the Rose -tree told her that his roses were yellow but he sent the
Nightingale to his brother, who grew benea th the Student's window,
so the Nightingale went there and when she arrived, she asked the
Rose -tree to give her a red rose. The Rose -tree said that his
roses were red but that the winter had chilled his veins and the frost
had nipped his buds, so he c ould not give her a red rose. The Rose
-tree gave her a solution: he told her that if she wanted a red rose,
she had to build it out of music by moonlight and stain it with her
own heart's blood. She had to sing to the Rose -tree with her
breast against at h o r n ;t h et h o r nw o u l dp i e r c eh e rh e a r ta n dh e rl i f e
-blood would flow into the Rose -tree veins. The Nightingale saidmunotes.in

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37that death was a great price to pay for a red rose but at the end,
she accepted. The Nightingale went to see the Student and told
him t hat he would have his red rose, that it was she who was going
to build it up with her own blood; the only thing she asked him for,
in return, was to being a true lover. Although the Student looked at
her, he could not understand anything because he only un derstood
the things that were written down in books. But the Oak -tree
understood and became sad because he was fond of the
Nightingale and asked her to sing the last song and when she
finished, the Student thought that the Nightingale had form but no
feeling. At night, the Nightingale went to the Rose -tree and set her
breast against the thorn. She sang all night long. She pressed
closer and closer against the thorn until the thorn finally touched
her heart and she felt a fierce pang of pain. The more the ro se got
the red colour, the fainter the Nightingale's voice became and after
beating her wings, she died. The rose was no more but she could
not see it. The next morning, the Student saw the wonderful rose
under his window. He took it and went to see the gi rl and offered
her the rose but she said that the rose would not go with her dress.
She told him that the Chamberlain's nephew had sent her real
jewels and that everybody knew that jewels cost far more than
flowers. After arguing with her, the Student thre w the rose into a
gutter, where a cart -wheel went over it and he stated that Love was
a silly thing and that he preferred Logic and Philosophy.
3.11 THEMES IN THE STORY
In The Nightingale and the Rose by Oscar Wilde we have
theme of love, sacrifice, selflessness, pity, materialism and
gratitude. Taken from his “The Complete Short Stories” collection
the story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator
and from the beginning of the story the reader realises that the
young boy is very much in love with the young girl. If anything, his
actions demonstrate that he is love -struck. His every thought is
about the girl and being able to dance with her at the ball. So strong
are the boy’s desires for the girl he that is preoccupied with her as
though his life is not worth living unless he manages to dance and
spend time with the girl. The Nightingale can also see how very
much in love the boy is with the girl and this acts as a trigger for the
Nightingale to find a red rose. Even if it is to cost the Nightingale
her life. The Nightingale’s actions throughout the story are also
important as she flies from one rose tree to another trying to find a
red rose before sacrific ing her life at the one tree that can give her
a red rose. Even though the Nightingale knows that the thorn
pressing against her breast may kill her she still perseveres,
thinking only of the boy’s happiness and overcoming the pain of the
thorn piercing he r breast. If anything the Nightingale is acting
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38It is also interesting that none of the other animals in the
garden help or warn the Nightingale. It is possible by doing so
Wilde is suggesting that l ove is not understood by all. It is clear to
the reader that the Nightingale knows what love is however the
same cannot be said for the other animals in the garden. Why this
might be is difficult to say for certain. It is possible that the other
animals ma y have experienced love at one stage in their lives but
things did not work out for them. It is also possible that the other
animals no longer see the joy that can come from love and rather
than viewing it as something that can bring good to people, they
may have a certain kind of animosity towards love. Regardless of
this the Nightingale shows great determination in her efforts to find
a red rose. Even though, as readers, we are aware that the
Nightingale is sacrificing her life for the boy and his pursuit of love.
A rose is also a thing of natural beauty unlike the jewels that
Chamberlain’s nephew has sent to the girl. The rose has a story
behind it that is more compelling than any story that might come
from the jewels. The young girl appears to be swayed by
materialism and it is on this decision alone she decides to go to the
dance with the Chamberlain’s nephew, despite having previously
promised to go to the dance with the young boy. It is possible that
Wilde is pitting the rose against the jewels and su ggesting that the
young are swayed by material things. Things that are given to
impress a person but which have no roots in love. Unlike the rose.
The introduction of the jewels also serves to highlight the fickle
nature of love. It is clear that girl is s wayed by shining jewels rather
than the normality or simplicity of a rose.
However there is nothing normal about the Nightingale’s
rose. She has taken pity on the boy and sacrificed her life for him.
Though at the end of the story her death may have been in vain
due to the boy discarding the rose in the gutter. Something he may
not have done if he knew the real beauty of the rose. If he was
aware of the sacrifices others have made for him he may have
been more careful. The rose acted as a path to any girl that the boy
would have liked to bring to the dance however he cannot see this.
He was fixated on the one girl who does not deserve his affections.
It is also noticeable that the boy gives up on love after being
spurned by the girl for the Chamberlain’s ne phew. This is not
something that the Nightingale has done. She allowed the thorn
push further and further into her breast till the thorn on the rose
killed her. Throughout the story there is a sense that it is only the
Nightingale who has understood the tr ue meaning of love. For the
boy he was no more than lovelorn and preoccupied with the one girl
and when rejected decides that love is not something that a person
should spend time on. In reality, the only one who has understood
love in the story is the Nig htingale and she may very well have
made a sacrifice for a boy, who is not ready to understand themunotes.in

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39complexities of love, devoting his energies towards the one girl who
doesn’t appreciate him and then giving up on love completely. It
may very well be that the boy is not grateful for the sacrifices made
by the Nightingale.
Self-sacrifice: The main theme of Oscar Wilde's short story "The
Nightingale and the Rose" explores the effects of self -sacrifice in
the name of what one truly believes in.
In this stor y, the nightingale is a bird who hears an Oxford
student cry for the want of a lady, who is apparently his "true love".
The woman in question had specifically requested for a red rose
from the love -stricken man as a token of true devotion. Only with
theflower will the lady respond to the man's request for love.
The nightingale, who is a believer in true and eternal love
finds that there are no red roses in the garden. However, a true
believer at last, she pierces her own heart against the thorn of a
white rose and turns it red with its own blood. This, the nightingale
does to reinstate her faith in love and her true belief that love shall
always prevail.
We find out in the end that all is worthless. The lady rejects
the rose and the Oxford lad realizes that it was all a fancy on his
part. The bird, however, is dead. However, the story shows us that
no sacrifice is too small when one does it with a true mission in
mind. However, the story is (as many works in Wilde's tradition)
open -ended: Was it worth it , after all? Who actually wins in an
ultimate demonstration of true faith? Does the nightingale die in
vain? These are the ultimate questions that are subtlety laid to the
reader and it is the reader who will have the final say after all.
3.12 MAJOR CHARA CTERS
The Natural elements:
Several natural elements add to the story’s fairy -tale
features, as they are personified and act like humans.
The Lizard, the Daisy and the Butterfly fill the role of the cynics and
the realists in human society, as they canno t understand why the
Student is crying over a rose and implicitly, over love:
“He is weeping for a red rose,” said the Nightingale.
“For a red rose!” they cried; “how very ridiculous!” and the little
Lizard, who was something of a cynic, laughed outright.
The “Holm -oak tree”, fills the role of the Nightingale’s home
and friend, as he is sorry to hear that she will sacrifice herself for
creating a red rose and asks her to sing to him one last timemunotes.in

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40The Student
The Student is an important character in the sh ort story
because he is love lorn that pushes the Nightingale to help him.
Apart from the fact that he is a philosophy student, his outer
characterisation also conveys his physical traits from the
Nightingale’s perspective: “His hair is dark as the hyacint h-blossom
and his lips are red as the rose of his desire; but passion has made
his face like pale ivory and sorrow has set her seal upon his brow.”
Inner characterisation
The young man’s inner characterisation presents him as
being desperately in love wit hag i r lw h o mh ew a n t st ot a k et oab a l l
but who has asked him a red rose in exchange for her company:
If I bring her a red rose she will dance with me till dawn. If I
bring her a red rose, I shall hold her in my arms and she will lean
her head upon my sh oulder and her hand will be clasped in mine.
But there is no red rose in my garden, so I shall sit lonely and she
will pass me by.
What is interesting and ironical about the Student is that
tough he is wise in matters of philosophy, he cannot see that the
woman he desires is playing with his feelings and demands things
(the rose) in exchange for her attention and affection.
All the Student sees is how “wretched” he is. Still, the
Nightingale believes his suffering is evidence that he is a “true
lover”.
The Student is incapable of understanding the Nightingale
but he appreciates her song, though he believes it has no meaning.
The Professor’s daughter
The woman whom the student desires is a Professor’s
daughter whose defining trait is materialism.
From th e beginning, when we find out that she asks a red
rose from the Student to be his partner at the ball, the girl’s gesture
strikes as conditional.
He most important character in the short story “The
Nightingale and the Rose” by Oscar Wilde is the Nightinga le, who
functions as the heroine or the protagonist. The Nightingale is a
bird but she is personified by the author, who gives her speech,
thoughts and feelings like those of a human being.
Except that the Nightingale is a female bird, the outer
character isation of the protagonist also informs us that “her voice
was like water bubbling from a silver jar” and that she has a “nest in
the Holm -oak tree”.munotes.in

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41Inner characterisation
The bird’s inner characterisation reveals that her most
important traits are empath y and altruism/self -sacrifice. Empathy is
revealed from the very beginning, when she is troubled by the
Student’s love pangs and seems to be the only one who
understands him: “Here at last is a true lover,” said the Nightingale.
“Night after night have I s ung of him, though I knew him not; night
after night have I told his story to the stars and now I see him.”; “But
the Nightingale understood the secret of the Student’s sorrow and
she sat silent in the oak -tree and thought about the mystery of
Love.”
Also, the bird has a high, idealistic opinion of love,
considering this feeling of value, something priceless:
Surely Love is a wonderful thing. It is more precious than
emeralds and dearer than fine opals. Pearls and pomegranates
cannot buy it nor is it set forth in the market -place. It may not be
purchased of the merchants nor can it be weighed out in the
balance for gold.”
Because the Student’s suffering has such a strong effect on
the Nightingale, she first proves to be altruistic, as she decide st o
set off and help him by looking for a red rose in the garden
3.13 QUESTIONS
1)How is "The Last Leaf" by O’. Henry a story of hope, friendship
and sacrifice? Discuss
2)How has Behrman proven himself a source of new life to Johnsy
in "The Last Leaf"? Expl ain
3)The title "The Last Leaf" is quite suggestive. Do you agree?
Explain
4)Comment on the aptness of the title of the story "The Open
Window."
5)How does Vera use the information she learns about Mr. Nuttel
to her advantage? Discuss
6)What are the qualities of t he three main characters in "The
Nightingale and the Rose" by Oscar Wilde? Explain
7)In "The Nightingale and the Rose," how does the student come
to realise the reality of love?
8)In "The Nightingale and the Rose" by Oscar Wilde, do you
agree that the true lov er is the nightingale?
(Edited and Revised from various internet sources)
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Unit -4
AC R I T I C A LS T U D YO FT H E
PRESCRIBED SHORT STORIES
PART 2
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction to Edgar Allan Poe
4.2 Summary of the story “The Tell -tale Heart”
4.3 Themes in the story
4.4 Analysis of Major Characters
4.5 Introdu ction to Katherine Mansfield
4.6 Summary of the story “The Doll’s House”
4.7 Themes in the Story
4.8 Analysis of Major Characters
4.9 Introduction to Kate Chopin
4.10 Summary of the story “The Story of an Hour”
4.11 Themes in the Story
4.12 Analysi s of Major Characters
4.13 Questions
4.0 OBJECTIVES
To help the students understand the style and technique of the
authors –Edgar Allan Poe, Katherine Mansfield and Kate
Chopin
To acquaint them with the critical summary prescribed in the
Syllabus -“The Tell-tale Heart”,, “The Doll’s House” and “The
Story of an Hour”
To help them study the themes and characters in the above
stories
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO EDGAR ALLAN POE
Poe brings to mind images of murderers and madmen,
untimely burials and mysterious wom en who come back from the
dead. His works have been in print since 1827 and include such
literary classics as “The Tell -Tale Heart", “The Raven", and “The
Fall of the House of Usher.” This versatile writer’s work includesmunotes.in

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short stories, poetry, a novel, a textbook, a book of scientific theory
and hundreds of essays and book reviews. He is widely recognized
as the inventor of the modern detective story and a trendsetter in
the science fiction genre but he made his living as America’s first
great literary cri tic and theoretician. Poe’s reputation today rests
principally on his tales of terror.
Poe’s stature as a major figure in world literature is primarily
based on his original and intense short stories, poems and critical
theories which established a highly influential justification for the
short form in both poetry and fiction. Regarded in literary histories
and handbooks as the architect of the modern short story, Poe was
also the principal precursor of the “art for art’s sake” movement in
nineteenth -century European literature. Whereas earlier critics
primarily concerned themselves with moral or ideological
generalities, Poe focused his criticism on the essentials of style and
construction that contributed to a work’s effectiveness or failure. In
his own work, he demonstrated a brilliant command of language
and technique as well as an inspired and original imagination.
Poe’s poetry and short stories greatly influenced the French
Symbolists of the late nineteenth century, who in turn changed the
direction of modern literature. It is this philosophical and artistic
transaction that accounts for much of Poe’s importance in literary
history.
Poe’s most important contribution to world literature derives
from the analytical method he practised both as a creativ ea u t h o r
and as a critic of the works of his contemporaries. His self -
declared intention was to devise strictly artistic ideals in a milieu
that he thought was excessively concerned with the utilitarian value
of literature, a tendency he termed the “here sy of the Didactic.”
While Poe’s position includes the main requisites of pure
aestheticism, his emphasis on literary formalism was directly linked
to his philosophical ideals: through the calculated use of language
one may express, though always imperfect ly, a vision of truth and
the essential condition of human existence. Poe’s theory of literary
creation is noted for two central points: first, a work must create a
unity of effect on the reader to be considered successful; second,
the production of this s ingle effect should not be left to the hazards
of accident or inspiration but should be to the minutest detail of
style and subject to the result of rational deliberation on the part of
the author. In poetry, this single effect must arouse the reader’s
sense of beauty, an ideal that Poe closely associated with sadness,
strangeness and loss; in prose, the effect should be one revelatory
of some truth, as in “tales of ratiocination” or works evoking “terror
or passion or horror.”
Apart from a common theoreti cal basis, there is a
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especially the tales of horror that comprise his best and best -known
works. These stories -which include “The Black Cat", “The Cask of
Amontillado", and“The Tell -Tale Heart” -are often told by a first -
person narrator and through this voice Poe probes the workings of
a character’s psyche. This technique foreshadows the
psychological explorations of Fyodor Dostoyevsky and the school
of psychological realism. In his Goth ic tales, Poe also employed an
essentially symbolic, almost allegorical method which gives such
works as “The Fall of the House of Usher", “The Masque of the Red
Death", and“Ligeia” an enigmatic quality that accounts for their
enduring interest and also l inks them with the symbolical works of
Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville . The influence of Poe’s
tales may be seen in the work of later writers, including Ambrose
Bierce and H.P. Lo vecraft, who belong to a distinct tradition of
horror literature initiated by Poe. In addition to his achievement as
creator of the modern horror tale, Poe is also credited with
parenting two other popular genres: science fiction and the
detective story. I n such works as “The Unparalleled Adventure of
Hans Pfaall” and“Von Kempelen and His Discovery", Poe took
advantage of the fascination for science and technology that
emerged in the early nineteenth century to produce speculative and
fantastic narratives which anticipate a type of literature that did not
become widely practised until the twentieth century. Similarly, Poe’s
three tales of ratiocination -”The Murders in the Rue Morgue", “The
Purloined Letter", and“The Mystery of Marie Roget” -are
recognize d as the models which established the major characters
and literary conventions of detective fiction, specifically the amateur
sleuth who solves a crime that has confounded the authorities and
whose feats of deductive reasoning are documented by an
admirin g associate. Just as Poe influenced many succeeding
authors and is regarded as a pioneer of such major literary
movements as Symbolism and Surrealism, he was also influenced
by earlier literary figures and movements. In his use of the demonic
and the grote sque, Poe evidenced the impact of the stories of
E.T.A. Hoffman and the Gothic novels of Ann Radcliffe, while the
despair and melancholy in much of his writing reflects an affinity
with the Romantic movement of the early nineteenth century. It was
Poe’s pa rticular genius that in his work he gave consummate
artistic form both to his personal obsessions and those of previous
literary generations, at the same time creating new forms which
provided a means of expression for future artists. Today, Poe is
recogni zed as one of the foremost fore -bearer of modern
literature, both in its popular forms, such as horror and detective
fiction and in its more complex and self -conscious forms, which
represent the essential artistic manner of the twentieth century. In
contrast to earlier critics who viewed the man and his works as one,
criticism of the past twenty -five years has developed a view of Poe
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virtuosity than with expressing his “soul", and who maint ained an
ironic rather than an autobiographical relationship to his writings.
4.2 SUMMARY OF “THE TELL TALE HEART”
An unnamed narrator opens the story by addressing the
reader and claiming that he is nervous but not mad. The narrator
has been so nervous that he jumps at the slightest sound. He can
hear all things on heaven and earth, he says and some things in
hell. But he maintains that he is not mad. To prove his sanity, he
says, he will calmly tell the reader his story.
One day, he decided to take the life of an old man for no
other reason except that he had an eye resembling that of a
vulture —“a pale blue eye with a film over it." Over time, it became
so unbearable to look upon it that the narrator had no other choice
but to get rid of the old man. Th e way he went about the task, with
such calculation and cunning, demonstrates that he is not mad, the
narrator says.
At midnight, he would turn the knob on the door of the old
man’s bedroom. Then he would open the door ever so slowly. In
fact, it would ta ke him an hour to open the door wide enough to
poke his head into the room. Would a madman have been so
cautious? Then he would open a little slot on his lantern, releasing
light, to check the hideous eye. For seven straight nights, it was
closed, “and so it was impossible to do the work", he says, “for it
was not the old man who vexed me but his Evil Eye."
On the eighth night, the narrator opened the door with
greater caution than before. As before, the room was completely
dark. He was about to shine the lantern when the old man sat up
and said, “Who’s there?" The narrator did not answer but remained
in place, not moving a muscle, for an entire hour. All the while, the
old man continued to sit up, wondering —the narrator speculated —
what he had heard. The wi nd? A mouse? A cricket?
Although he did not hear the old man lie down again, the
narrator opened the lantern slot just a sliver, then wider. The beam
fell upon the open vulture eye. Then the narrator heard a low,
muffled sound —the beating of the man’s hea rt! Or so he believed.
The heartbeat louder —then louder and louder. Would a neighbour
hear it?
Shouting, the narrator rushed into the room. After the old
man shrieked, the narrator quickly threw him to the floor and pulled
the bed on top of him. The heart continued to beat, but only softly.
Moments later, the beating stopped. The narrator checked his
pulse. Nothing. The old man was dead. After moving the bed aside,munotes.in

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the narrator took up three floorboards, secured the old man
between the joists and replaced the boards. The narrator felt proud
of himself, for there was no blood to wash out, no other task of any
kind to do.
At 4 a.m., just when he had finished his work, the narrator
answered a knock at his front door. When he opened it, three
policemen entered , saying a neighbour had reported hearing a
shriek, possibly indicating foul play. They needed to search the
premises. “I smiled", the narrator says, “for what had I to fear?"
After welcoming the police, he told them the shriek was his
own; he had cried o ut during a dream. He also told them that the
old man who lived in the house was away in the country. Next, he
took the police all over the house, inviting them to search
everything -thoroughly. After they entered the old man’s chamber,
the narrator point ed out that the old man’s possessions had not
been disturbed.
In his swelling self -confidence, the narrator brought in
chairs and invited the policemen to rest. “I myself, in the wild
audacity of my perfect triumph, placed my own seat upon the very
spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the victim", the narrator
says.
The police appeared completely satisfied that nothing
criminal had occurred in the house. However, they continued to
chat idly, staying much longer than the narrator had expected. By
and by, he began to hear a rhythmic ringing in his head. While he
was talking with the police, the noise -which had the cadence of a
ticking watch but a much louder sound -persisted, becoming more
distinct. A moment later, he concluded that the rhythmic r inging was
outside of him. Still, he talked on, now more loudly. The policemen
did not seem to hear the noise.
When it grew even louder, the narrator rose and began
arguing with the officers about trivial matters, punctuating his
conversation with wild h and movements. He also paced back and
forth. Then he raved and cursed and dragged his chair over the
floorboards, all in an apparent attempt to drown out the noise he
was hearing. Meanwhile, it grew still louder and louder and louder.
How was it possible t hat they could not hear it?
In fact, they must have heard it, the narrator decided. And
they must have suspected him of a crime all along. Their calm
manner and idle chatter were part of a ruse to mock him. Unable to
brook their counterfeit behaviour any longer, unable to endure the
sound any longer, the narrator brought the whole business to a
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"Villains! I shrieked, "dissemble no more! I admit the deed! -
tear up the planks! -here, here! -it is the beating of his hideous
heart!"
4.3 THEMES
Lunacy versus rationality
In many of Poe's short stories, such as "The Tell -Tale
Heart", the narrators are madmen and murderers who fail to
disguise their lack of rationality with a discussion of their thought
processes. However, their stories inevi tably reveal gaps in their
chain of thoughts that speak of their descent into immorality and
selfishness. In many cases, insanity is interlocked with the
narrators' emotional egotism; they are incapable of empathizing
with others and think only of their ow n desire to satisfy their honour
or their need to end the disruptions to their lives.
Obsession
The majority of Poe's narrators are nervous, oversensitive
and given to excessive worrying or strange fixations. In his works,
Poe explores the consequences of such obsessive tendencies. In
the case of the narrator of "The Tell -Tale Heart", the protagonist's
declarations of oversensitivity are merely a thin disguise for
insanity.
Guilt and Innocence
The guilt of the narrator is a major theme in ‘‘The Tell -Tale
Heart.’’ The story is about a mad person who, after killing a
companion for no apparent reason, hears an interminable heartbeat
and releases his overwhelming sense of guilt by shouting his
confession to the police. Indeed, some early critics saw the story as
a straightforward parable about self -betrayal by the criminal’s
conscience. The narrator never pretends to be innocent, fully
admitting that he has killed the old man because of the victim’s pale
blue, film -covered eye which the narrator believes to be am a l i g n a n t
force. The narrator suggests that there are uncontrollable forces
which can drive people to commit violent acts. In the end, however,
Poe’s skilful writing allows the reader to sympathize with the
narrator’s miserable state despite fully recogn izing that he is guilty
by reason of insanity.
Sanity and Insanity
Closely related to the theme of guilt and innocence is the
issue of sanity. From the first line of the story -‘‘True! -nervous -
very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am but why w ill you
say that I am mad?'' -the reader recognizes that something strange
has occurred. His obsession with conveying to his audience that he
is sane only amplifies his lack of sanity. The first tangible sign that
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he compares the old man’s eye to a vulture’s eye. He explains his
decision to ‘‘take the life of the old man’’ in order to free himself
from the curse of the eye. The narrator’s argument that he is sane,
calculating and methodical i s unconvincing, however his erratic and
confused language suggests that he is dis -ordered. Thus, what
the narrator considers to be evidence of a sane person -the
meticulous and thoughtful plans required to carry out a ghastly and
unpleasant deed -are i nterpreted instead by the reader to be
manifestations of insanity.
Time
A secondary theme in ‘‘The Tell -Tale Heart’’ is the role of
time as a pervasive force throughout the story. Some critics note
that the narrator is obsessed with time. While the entir en a r r a t i v ei s
told as one long flashback, the narrator is painfully aware of the
agonizing effect on him of time. Although the action in this narrative
occurs mainly during one long night, the numerous references the
narrator makes to time show that the h orror he experiences has
been building over time. From the beginning, he explains that his
obsession with ridding the curse of the eye has ‘‘haunted [him] day
and night.’’ For seven long nights the narrator waits for the right
moment to murder his victim. When on the eighth night the old man
realizes that someone is in his room, the narrator remains still for
an entire hour. The old man’s terror is also felt by the narrator, who
had endured ‘‘night after night hearkening to the death watches in
the wall.’’ (Death watches are a type of small beetle that live in
wood and make a ticking sound.) For the narrator, death and time
are closely linked. He explains that ‘‘the old man’s hour had come,’’
all the while painfully aware of the hours it takes to kill a vict im and
clean up the scene of the crime. What drives the narrator over the
edge is hearing the overwhelming sound of a heartbeat, which he
compares to ‘‘a low, dull, quick sound, such as a watch makes
when enveloped in cotton.’’ Yet after killing the old ma n, the
narrator says that for ‘‘many minutes, the heart beat on.’’ He
repeats his comparison of the heartbeat to a ticking watch as the
unrelenting sound drives him to confess to the police. The
narrator’s hour has also arrived.
4.4 CHARACTERS
There are two characters: the Narrator and the Old Man.
The Narrator has clearly descended into madness. As for the
"literal" characteristics, if you mean physically, we do not know
what the Narrator looks like. He tells the story in first person and
does not descr ibe his own looks. One can describe his voice,
however, as being full of panic, fear and apprehension. As his
madness increases, so too does his desire to rid himself of the Old
Man with whom he lives. He is convinced that the man's eye is evil
and that he wishes to do the Narrator harm.The narrator of ‘Themunotes.in

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Tell-Tale Heart’ is clearly unstable, as the end of the story reveals
but his mental state is questionable right from the start, as the jerky
syntax of his narrative suggests:
True! –nervous –very, very dreadfully nervous I had been
and am; but why will you say that I am mad? The disease had
sharpened my senses –not destroyed –not dulled them. Above all
was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the heaven and
in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How, then, am I mad?
Hearken! and observe how healthily –how calmly I can tell you the
whole story.
The multiple d ashes, the unusual syntactical arrangement,
the exclamation and question marks: all suggest someone who is,
at the very least, excitable. His repeated protestations that he is
sane and merely subject to ‘over acuteness of the senses’ don’t
fully convince: there is too much in his manner (to say nothing of
his baseless murder of the old man) to suggest otherwise.
As to the Old Man, we have more knowledge of him
physically and less psychologically. He has blue eyes, one of which
is cloudy (probably due to ca taract) and their odd appearance
makes the Narrator think he possesses some sort of evil intent. He
is frail, sleeps a lot and deeply. The Old Man is probably completely
unaware of the Narrator's burgeoning hatred.
The old man is known to readers only thr ough the narration
of the insane protagonist. According to the narrator, the old man
had never done anything to warrant his violent end. However, the
old man’s cloudy, pale blue eye bothers the narrator tremendously.
The narrator believes that only by kill ing the old man can he get rid
of the eye’s overpowering malignant force. The old man is
apparently quite rich, for he possesses ‘‘treasures’’ and ‘‘gold’’ and
he locks the window shutters in his room for fear of robbers.
However, the narrator states that he has no desire for his gold. In
fact, he claims that he loves the old man. Through the narrator, the
reader understands the horror that the old man experiences as he
realizes that his companion is about to kill him. The narrator claims
that he too knows this horror very well. Some critics argue that the
old man must have known about the narrator’s violent tendencies,
for he cries out in horror well before the narrator kills him. Other
critics suggest that the old man may have been the narrator’s
guardian or even father. Still other critics believe that the old man is
a doppelgänger for the narrator, that is, he is his double and the
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4.5 INTRODUCTION TO KATHERINE MANSFIELD
Katherine Ma nsfield was a pioneer of the modern short
story. Here Stephanie Forward provides close readings of three
short stories from Mansfield’s celebrated 1922 collection, The
Garden Party and Other Stories .
The Garden Party and Other Stories was published in 192 2,
the year before Katherine Mansfield’s untimely death from
tuberculosis. An anonymous detractor in the English Review
declared it to be ‘cruel, passionless and cynical’; however, in July
1922 Robert Littell acknowledged Mansfield’s ‘genius’, enthusing
about her ability to evoke moods and feelings: ‘She is a
connoisseur of the ripples that mean so much more than waves, a
collector of little emotions caught on the wing, never pinned or
bottled in her pages but kept alive there in all their fragile iridesce nt
colours’.
Recently, Claire Tomalin has described Mansfield as ‘an
original, both in her technique as a writer and the way she chose to
live her life; a modernist, an innovator, an experimenter’. Other
notable critics have assessed her contribution to literary
modernism and Clare Hanson has also argued persuasively that
the central concerns of Mansfield’s fiction ‘resonate powerfully with
the landscape opened up by psychology and psychoanalysis’.
Modernist authors distanced themselves from their Victo rian
and Edwardian predecessors. Repudiating traditional third -person
omniscient narration, they preferred to represent characters
through their shifting thoughts, memories and sensations.
Mansfield’s stories were regarded as the first in the English
language to bear the influence of Chekhov. She also credited the
impact of visual art on her prose technique, declaring that Vincent
Van Gogh’s paintings ‘taught me something about writing which
was queer –a kind of freedom –or rather, a shaking free’.
Furthermore Mansfield compared her story ‘Miss Brill’ to a piece of
music, explaining in a letter of 17 January 1921: ‘I chose not only
the length of every sentence but even the sound of every sentence.
I chose the rise and fall of every paragraph to fit her.’ One art form
could be used to inspire another, as Gerri Kimber has explained:
Mansfield’s stories ‘grow from pieces of music, pictures, poems and
architectural details. Cinema techniques are transposed back into
writing, theatrical monologues and dialogue sa r er e -mediatised as
prose’
Mansfield’s journal entry for January 1916 states:
‘The plots of my stories leave me perfectly cold.’ They tend to begin
at the heart of a situation, without preamble (although flashbacks
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Primarily, Mansfield is concerned with the psychology of her
characters, many of whom are isolated, frustrated and disillusioned.
She moves between them, using focalization and free indirect
speech to communicate their thoughts. O ften they feel that they
have ‘two selves’ and repeatedly, there is a sense of wasted
potential and a yearning for escape.
The short story is an exacting form, with no room for
convoluted explanations, lengthy descriptions and superfluous
dialogue. In a letter Mansfield stated that, ideally, ‘there mustn’t be
one single word out of place or one word that can be taken out’.
Such condensation requires skilful use of implications and also
omission. Writing to Lady Ottoline Morrell, she contemplated how
nuanc es of emotion might be captured: ‘how are we to convey
these overtones, half tones, quarter tones, these hesitations,
doubts, beginnings, if we go at them directly ?’ Mansfield
transmitted details obliquely, via allusion and suggestion, seemingly
‘trivial’ incidents and ‘random’ associations.
Certain images recur: the sea and ships; fruits, trees, plants,
leaves, flowers; birds and mirrors. She draws unexpected
comparisons, achieved through personification and unusual
metaphors and similes. For instance, ‘L ife of Ma Parker’ captures
the loneliness of a brave old woman who has endured great
hardship and multiple bereavements; she has coped stoically, until
the loss of her beloved young grandson proves to be the final
straw. The view from her employer’s ‘smudg yl i t t l ew i n d o w ’r e v e a l s
to Ma Parker ‘an immense expanse of sad -looking sky and
whenever there were clouds they looked very worn, old clouds,
frayed at the edges, with holes in them or dark stains like tea’.
4.6 SUMMARY OF “THE DOLL’S HOUSE”
The Doll's House is a beautiful short story written by
Katherine Mansfield. Mansfield is the best artist in portraying the
trivial activities of men. In this story she reveals the cruelty of grown
-up people in society.
She shows the innocence of small children and the cruelty of
society that draws a line between the rich and the poor, higher and
lower status of people.
There are five child characters in this story. They are the
three Burnell daughters Isabel, Lottie and Kezia and the two Kelvey
daughters Lil and E lse. Besides them, there are grown ups like the
Aunt Beryl, Mrs. Kelvey, the school teacher, Mrs. Hay who gifted
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This story reveals that small children are innocent but they
are poisoned by the grown ups and become cruel very s lowly.
Once Mrs. Hay had sent the Burnell children a Doll's House. It was
more beautiful than a real house. It was a charming house having
ad r a w i n gr o o m ,ad i n n i n g -room, a kitchen and two bedrooms. All
the rooms had tables, chairs, beds and carpets. The rooms were
painted in different colours however Kezia liked the lamp very
much, which was placed in the dinning -room. It was unique and
large. It was newly painted so it was kept outside in the courtyard
for a few days until the smell of the paint was disa ppeared. Kezia
thought to be a real one.
The Burnell children were overjoyed with the gifted Doll's
House. The next day they reached school with great excitement.
They were yearning to tell the others of the wonderful Doll's House.
Burnell's eldest daught er Isabela told her friends about it during the
lunch hour at the school. All the children came together. Among
them there were Emmie Cole, Lena Logan and the rest. But two of
the girls did not come near them. They were downtrodden, lower
class children or the daughters of the Kelveys, their mother was a
washerwoman and father was rumoured to be in prison. Lil Kelvey,
the elder sister, is a “stout, plain child, with big freckles.” Her
younger sister, Else, follows her everywhere, holding onto her skirt,
which she tugs when she wants anything. The Kelvey girls wear
“bits” given to their mother by the people for whom she works. Lil
wears a dress made from an old tablecloth belonging to the
Burnells and her feathered hat once belonged to the postmistress.
Else wears a white dress that looks like an old nightgown. She
never smiles and rarely speaks. Besides, the Burnell's mother had
forbidden her daughters to speak to the Kelveys. All the school
children, two at a time came to the Burnell's house to see the Doll' s
House. Only Else Kelvey and Lil Kelvey were left uninvited. Nobody
spoke with them.
Once, Kezia, the youngest daughter of the Burnells asked
her mother to call the Kelveys her home but her mother berated her
and she was silenced. The Kelveys were shunne db ya l l ,h a t e db y
all. Only the two sisters understood each other.
Then one day Kezia saw the two Kelvey girls coming
towards her gate. She invited them to come and see the Doll's
House. With much hesitation they went into the courtyard and saw
the wonde rful house. Else saw the little lamp. At that very moment
Aunt Beryl's harsh voice was heard. She shooed them off as if they
were chicken. Afraid of the situation, they squeezed through the
gate and ran away. Far off they sat on a drainpipe and Else nudged
up close to her sister. But now she had forgotten the cross lady.
She put out a finger and stroked her sister's quill; she smiled her
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An innocent child like Kezia saw no difference between one
and a nother but the elder people created class difference in
society.
4.7 THEMES
Inhumanity of social class discrimination
The central theme in Katherine Mansfield's short story "The
Doll's House" concerns the inhumanity of social class
discrimination and the hope for the dawn of a new day bringing true
equality.
Mansfield grew up in British colonial New Zealand and her
short stories, as well as many of her other works, reflect her own
experiences and observations. In colonial New Zealand, not many
schools ex isted; therefore, the rich were forced to attend school
with the poor working -class children, a truth reflected in the setting
of "The Doll's House." The three Burnell girls, who are given the
doll-house, represent the rich who must attend school with the
"judge's little girls, the doctor's daughters, the store -keeper's
children and the milkman's." But this mix of society, rather than
creating equality, only serves to emphasize established social
hierarchy. The Burnells especially emphasize social hierarchy
because, being rich, they look down upon at others in their school.
Though they socialize with those whom they are allowed to at their
school, they only stoop to do so. Isabel, in particular, only socializes
with other girls when she knows doing so will m ake them envious of
her. The doll-house they are given symbolizes their view, especially
their parents' view, of ideal upper class life and evidence that the
Burnells only deign to socialize with those beneath them at their
school is seen in the fact that the Burnell sisters are granted
permission to invite girls from school to come see the doll -house,
two at a time but the girls are given strict orders about what their
invited guests are permitted to do:
The invited girls were not to stay for tea, of co urse or to
come traipsing through the house but just to stand quietly in the
courtyard while Isabel pointed out the beauties and Lottie and
Kezia looked pleased.
While the Burnells dismiss those they deign to socialize with
at school, they, along with the rest of the school, completely snub
the two Kelvey girls, who represent the poorest of the poor. They
are daughters of the washerwoman and their missing father is
rumoured to be imprisoned. Being the poorest of the poor, they are
completely forbidden to c ome to look at the doll -house or even, so
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Yet, while the doll -house represents the ideal upper class
life, it contains one more symbol, the lamp that looks so real that
Kezia, the youngest, thinks it is the best part about the doll -house.
The lamp symbolizes aray of hope in the dark world, of hope for
theelimination of socio -economic disparities and the creation of
true equality. We particularly see the symbolism of the lamp when,
Kezia, against her family's wishes, invites the Kelvey girls in to see
the Doll's House. They are soon chased away by Kezia's aunt;
regardless, Else Kelvey, the youngest, speaks of seeing a glimmer
of hope for a better tomorrow when, at the end of the story, she
smiles and softly says, "I se en the little lamp."
4.8 CHARACTERS
Kezia
A contributing factor to the story "The Doll's House" by
Katherine Mansfield is the characterization of Kezia as she travels
in her innocence through the symbolic world of experience. Kezia is
essential to the pl ot because she represents a taboo, offering
opposition to common ways of thinking. Through the portrayal of
Kezia, as she interacts as the symbolic eccentric, Mansfield
emphasizes the powers and blind justification of conformity within
society. The story commences with the arrival of the Doll's House
sent to the Burnell children. The Burnells take a great liking to this
new acquisition. As the two older children admire the red carpet,
red plush chairs and gold frames of this highly ornamented house,
Kezia, the youngest of the girls, takes an interest in the rather
simple lamp. In fact, "what she liked more than anything, what she
liked frightfully, was the lamp." This infatuation symbolizes her
impeccability in comparison to the others as she is drawn to th e
unadorned lamp. Kezia proceeds to find fault with the state and
proportions of the Doll's House and perfection with the lamp in its
simplicity. As others take interests in the gaudy nature of the house,
Kezia rebels: "But the lamp was perfect. It seemed to smile at
Kezia, to say 'I live here.' The lamp was so real." Conflict intensifies
as Kezia remains the odd ball. The appreciation of the lamp is a
metaphor for the actions to come. Kezia likes the lamp because
she does not know any better. Thus, she dec ides to befriend the
Kelveys because she doesn't see anything wrong in doing so. The
Kelveys are a family that are shunned because of their economic
status. Throughout the town, "Many of the children, including the
Burnnels, were not allowed even to speak to them." Without a
second thought, school children and their families followed in the
consuming tradition of looking down upon these unprivileged
people. Kezia offers offset to this common path of thinking and
questions such a blind following. She asks he r mother, "Can't I ask
the Kelveys just once?" To which, the response is, "Run away,
Kezia; you know quite well why not." Mansfield successfully
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through the juxtaposition of Kezia's innocence to the prejudiced
views of those who live in the world of experience
4.9 INTRODUCTION TO KATE CHOPIN
Kate Chopin is an American short story writer and novelist
and is now considered a forerunner among feminist authors of the
20th century. From 1889 to 1902 she wrote short stories for both
children and adults which were published by some of America’s
most prestigious magazines -Vogue ,t h e Atlantic Monthly, Harper’s
Young People ,Youth’s Companion and the Century . A few stories
were syndicated by the America n Press Association. Her stories
also appeared in her two published collections, Bayou Folk (1894)
andAN i g h ti nA c a d i e (1897), both of which received good reviews
from critics across the country. Twenty -six of her stories
arechildren’s stories -those published in or submitted to children’s
magazines or those similar in subject or theme to those that were.
She also wrote two novels: At Fault (1890) and The Awakening
(1899.). The latter is set in New Orleans and Grand Isle. The
people who inhabit her stories are most often residents of
Louisiana, with many set around Natchitoches in north central
Louisiana her best -known work focuses on the lives of sensitive,
intelligent women. In time, literary critics determined that Chopin
addressed the concerns of women in all places and for all times.
By the late 1890s Kate Chopin was well known among American
readers of magazine fiction.
Her early novel At Fault (1890) had not been much noticed
by the public but The Awakening (1899) was widely condemned.
Critics called it morbid, vulgar and disagreeable. Willa Cather, who
would become a well known twentieth -century American author,
labelled it trite and sordid.
Some modern scholars have written that the novel was
banned at Chopin’s home -town library in St. Louis but this claim
has not been able to be verifi ed, although in 1902, the Evanston,
Illinois, Public Library removed The Awakening from its open
shelves -and the book has been challenged twice in recent years.
Chopin’s third collection of stories, to have been called A Vocation
and a Voi ce, was for unknown reasons cancelled by the publisher
and did not appear as a separate volume until 1991.
Chopin’s novels were mostly forgotten after her death in
1904 but several of her short stories appeared in an anthology
within five years after her death, others were reprinted over the
years and slowly people again came to read her. In the 1930s a
Chopin biography appeared which spoke well of her short fiction
but dismissed The Awakening as unfortunate. However, by the
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and moving work of fiction. Such readers set in motion a Kate
Chopin revival, one of the more remarkable literary revivals in the
United States.
After 1969, when Per Seyersted’s biography ,o n e
sympathetic to The Awakening , was published, along with
Seyersted’s edition of her complete works, Kate Chopin became
known throughout the world. She has attracted great attention from
scholars and students a nd her work has been translated into other
languages, including Albanian, Arabic, Chinese, Czech, Danish,
Dutch, French, Galician, German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese,
Korean, Malayalam, Polish, Portuguese, Serbian, Spanish,
Swedish, Turkish and Vietnames e. She is today understood as a
classic writer who speaks eloquently about contemporary
concerns. “The Awakening” ,“The Storm", “The Story of an
Hour", “Desiree’s Baby", “A Pair of Silk Stockings", “A Respectable
Woman", “Athenaise” and other stories appear in countless editions
and are embraced by people for their sensitive, graceful, poetic
depictio ns of women’s lives.
4.10 SUMMARY OF THE STORY “THE STORY OF AN
HOUR”
At the beginning of the story, Richards and Josephine
believe they must break the news of Brently Mallard's death to
Louise Mallard as gently as possible. Josephine informs her "in
broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing."
Their assumption, not an unreasonable one, is that this unthinkable
news will be devastating to Louise and will threaten her weak heart.
But something even more unthinkable lurks in this story –Louise's
growing awareness of the freedom she will have without Brently.
At first, she doesn't consciously allow herself to think about
this freedom. The knowledge reaches her wordlessly and
symbolically, via the "open window" through which she sees the
"open square" in front of her house. The repetition of the word
"open" emphasizes possibility and a lack of restrictions.
The scene is full of energy and hope. The trees are "all
aquiver with the new spring of life", the "delicious breath of rain" is
inthe air, sparrows are twittering and Louise can hear someone
singing a song in the distance. She can see "patches of blue sky"
amid the clouds.
She observes these patches of blue sky without registering
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Describing Louise's gaze, Cho pin writes, "It was not a glance
of reflection but rather indicated a suspension of intelligent
thought." If she had been thinking intelligently, social norms might
have prevented her from such a heretical recognition. Instead, the
world offers her "veiled hints" that she slowly pieces together
without even realizing she is doing so.
In fact, Louise resists the impending awareness, regarding it
"fearfully." As she begins to realize what it is, she strives "to beat it
back with her will." Yet its force is t oo powerful to oppose.
This story can be uncomfortable to read because on the
surface, Louise seems to be glad that her husband has died which
is quite accurate. She thinks of Brently's "kind, tender hands" and
"the face that had never looked save with lo ve upon her" and she
recognizes that she has not finished weeping for him.
But his death has made her see something she hasn't seen
before and might likely never have seen if he had lived: her desire
for self -determination.
Once she allows herself to r ecognize her approaching
freedom, she utters the word "free" over and over again, relishing it.
Her fear and her uncomprehending stare are replaced by
acceptance and excitement.
She looks forward to "years to come that would belong to her
absolutely."
Inone of the most important passages of the story, Chopin
describes Louise's vision of self -determination. It's not so much
about getting rid of her husband as it is about being entirely in
charge of her own life, "body and soul." Chopin writes:
"There w ould be no one to live for her during those coming
years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will
bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women
believe they have a right to impose a will upon a fellow -creature."
Note the phrase men andwomen. Louise never
catalogues any specific offences Brently has committed against
her; rather, the implication seems to be that marriage can be stifling
for both parties.
When Brently Mallard enters the house alive and well in the
final scene, his appearance is utterly ordinary.
He is "a little travel -stained, composedly carrying his grip -
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with Louise's "feverish triumph" and her walking down the stairs like
a "goddess of Vi ctory."
When the doctors determine that Louise "died of heart
disease –of joy that kills", the reader immediately recognizes
theirony . It seems clear that her shock was not joy over her
husband's survival but rather distress over losing her cherished,
newfound freedom. Louise did briefly experience joy –the joy of
imagining herself in control of her own life. And it was the removal
of that intense joy that led to her death.
4.11 THEMES IN THE STORY
THE FORBIDDEN JOY OF INDEPENDENCE
In “The Story of an Hour", independence is a forbidden
pleasure that can be imagined only privately. When Louise hears
from Josephine and Richards of Brently’s death, she reacts with
obvious grief and although her reaction is perhaps more violent
than other women’s, it is an appropriate one. Alone, however,
Louise begins to realize that she is now an independ ent woman, a
realization that enlivens and excites her. Even though these are her
private thoughts, she at first tries to repress the joy she feels, to
“beat it back with her will.” Such resistance reveals how forbidden
this pleasure really is. When she fi nally does acknowledge the joy,
she feels possessed by it and must abandon herself to it as the
word free escapes her lips. Louise’s life offers no refuge for this
kind of joy and the rest of society will never accept it or understand
it. Extreme circumsta nces have given Louise a taste of this
forbidden fruit and her thoughts are, in turn, extreme. She sees her
life as being absolutely hers and her new independence as the core
of her being. Overwhelmed, Louise even turns to prayer, hoping for
al o n gl i f ei n which to enjoy this feeling. When Brently returns, he
unwittingly yanks Louise’s independence away from her, putting it
once again out of her reach. The forbidden joy disappears as
quickly as it came but the taste of it is enough to kill her.
THE INHEREN TO P P R E S S I V E N E S SO FM A R R I A G E
Chopin suggests that all marriages, even the kindest ones,
are inherently oppressive. Louise, who readily admits that her
husband was kind and loving, nonetheless feels joy when she
believes that he has died. Her reaction doesn ’t suggest any malice
and Louise knows that she’ll cry at Brently’s funeral. However,
despite the love between husband and wife, Louise views Brently’s
death as a release from oppression. She never names a specific
way in which Brently oppressed her, hinti ng instead that marriage in
general stifles both women and men. She even seems to suggest
that she oppressed Brently just as much as he oppressed her.
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mind reveals the inherent oppressiveness of all marriages, which
by their nature rob people of their independence.
WEEPING
Louise’s weeping about Brently’s death highlights the
dichotomy between sorrow and happiness. Louise cries or thinks
about crying for about three -quarters of “The Story of a nH o u r " ,
stopping only when she thinks of her new freedom. Crying is part of
her life with Brently but it will presumably be absent from her life as
an independent woman. At the beginning of the story, Louise sobs
dramatically when she learns that Brently is dead, enduring a
“storm of grief.” She continues weeping when she is alone in her
room, although the crying now is unconscious, more a physical
reflex than anything spurred by emotion. She imagines herself
crying over Brently’s dead body. Once the funer al is over in her
fantasies, however, there is no further mention of crying because
she’s consumed with happiness.
HEART TROUBLE
The heart trouble that afflicts Louise is both a physical and
symbolic malady that represents her mixed feelings towards her
marriage and unhappiness with her lack of freedom. The fact that
Louise has heart trouble is the first thing we learn about her and
this heart trouble is what seems to make the announcement of
Brently’s death so threatening. A person with a weak heart, afte ra l l ,
would not be able to deal well with such news. When Louise
reflects on her new independence, her heart races, pumping blood
through her veins. When she dies at the end of the story, the
diagnosis of “heart disease” seems appropriate because the shoc k
of seeing Brently was surely enough to kill her. However, the
doctors’ conclusion that she had died of overwhelming joy is ironic
because it had been the loss of joy that had actually killed her.
Indeed, Louise seems to have died of a broken heart, cause db y
the sudden loss of her much -loved independence.
THE OPEN WINDOW
The open window from which Louise gazes for much of the
story represents the freedom and opportunities that await her after
her husband has died. From the window, Louise sees blue sky,
fluffy clouds and treetops. She hears people and birds singing and
smells a coming rainstorm. Everything that she experiences
through her senses suggests joy and spring -new life. And when
she ponders over the sky, she feels the first hints of elation. O nce
she fully indulges in this excitement, she feels that the open window
is providing her with life itself. The open window provides a clear,
bright view into the distance and Louise’s own bright future, which
is now unobstructed by the demands of another person. It’s
therefore no coincidence that when Louise turns from the window
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4.12 CHARACTERS
Louise Mallard
The protagonist of "The Story of an Hour", she suffers from
heart troubles but experiences a new sensation of freedom upon
the death of her husband. An intelligent, independent woman,
Louise Mallard understands the “right” way for women to behave
but her internal thoughts and feelings are anything but correct.
When her sister announces that Brentl y has died, Louise cries
dramatically rather than feeling numb, as she knows many other
women would. Her violent reaction immediately shows that she is
an emotional and demonstrative woman. She knows that she
should grieve for Brently and fear for her own future but instead she
feels elation at her new found independence. Louise is not cruel
and knows that she’ll cry over Brently’s dead body when the time
comes. However, when she is out of others’ sight, her private
thoughts are of her own life and the oppo rtunities that await her,
which she feels have just brightened considerably.
Louise suffers from a heart problem, which indicates the
extent to which she feels that marriage has oppressed her. The
vague label Chopin gives to Louise’s problem -“heart trou ble” -
suggests that this trouble is both physical and emotional, a problem
both within her body and with her relationship with Brently. In the
hour during which Louise believes Brently is dead, her heart beats
strongly -indeed, Louise feels her new indepe ndence physically.
Alone in her room, her heart races and her whole body feels warm.
She spreads her arms open, symbolically welcoming her new life.
“Body and soul free!” she repeats to herself, a statement that
shows how total her new independence really is for her. Only when
Brently walks in does her “heart trouble” reappear and this trouble
is so acute that it kills her. The irony of the ending is that Louise
doesn’t die of joy as the doctors claim but actually from the loss of
joy. Brently’s death gave her a glimpse of a new life and when that
new life is swiftly taken away, the shock and disappointment kill
her.
Brently Mallard
In "The Story of an Hour", he is a kind husband to Louise
and is assumed to die in a train accident. Although Louise
remembers Brently as a kind and loving man, merely being married
to him also made him an oppressive factor in her life. Brently
arrives home unaware that there had been a train accident.
Josephine
In "The Story of an Hour", she tries to help her sister Mrs.
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Richards
In "The Story of an Hour", he is Brently Mallard's friend and
when he learns about the train accident and Brently’s death at the
newspaper office, he is there when Josephine tells the news to
Louise.
4.13 Q UESTIONS
1. In The Tell Tale Heart is the conflict in the story external or
internal? Could it be both? Give evidence from the story to
support your answer.
2. In The Tell Tale Heart the two controlling symbols in the story
are the eye and the heart. What might these two symbols
represent?
3. How does "The Tell -Tale Heart" demonstrate the element of
irrationality common to the American Gothic genre?
4. What does Mansfield's "The Doll's House" tells us about attitudes
towards social class in the early twentieth century?
5. In The Doll House" what is the significance of the lamp in the
story?
6. How can you analyse The Doll's House as a condemnation of
class discrimination?
7. In the Story of an Hour what kind of relationships do the Mallards
have? I s Brently Mallard unkind to Louise Mallard, or is there
some other reason for her saying "free, free, free!" when she
hears of his death? How does she feel about him?
8. In the Story of an Hour Mrs. Mallard is described as descending
the stairs "like a go ddess of Victory." In what ways does she feel
herself victorious?
9. In the Story of an Hour what view of marriage does the story
present? The story was published in 1894; does it only
represent attitudes toward marriage in the nineteenth century or
could it equally apply to attitudes about marriage today?

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62Unit -5
JANE AUSTE N’sPRIDE AND PREJUDICE
PART I
Unit Structure
5.1 Objectives
5.2 The Background
5.3 About the Author: Jane Auste n’s Life and Work
5.4 Plot
5.5 Settings
5.6 Major Characters in the Nov el
5.6.1 Elizabeth Bennet
5.6.2 Fitzwilliam Darcy
5.6.3 Jane Bennet
5.6.4 Mr. Bennet
5.6.5 Charles Bingley
5.6.6 Mrs. Bennet
5.6.7 Lydia Bennet
5.6.8 George Wickham
5.6.9 Charlotte Lucas
5.7 Points to Remember
5.8 Check your Progress
5.1OBJECTIVES
This part of the study Material is aimed to:
Provide a general introduction to Pride and Prejudice .
Acquaint the reader with the immediate social and cultural
environment.
Introduce the Author .
Understand the plot andstructure of the Novel .
Brief about the Major Characters in the Novel.
5.2 THE BACKGROUND
Jane Austen was born in the Georgian Era which includes
the founding of British Museum. Furthermore, we should not forget
the remarkable contribution of Samuel Johnson, William Hogarth,
Samuel Richards on and George Frederic Handel, which stood out
in this particularly vibrant period. Jane Austen was not the only
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63Mary Shelley. Romantic poets such as Lord Byron, Robert Burns,
William Blak e, John Keats, William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe
Shelley and Samuel Taylor Coleridge also belong to this period.
The period is noted for the development of a distinct
architectural style characterised by redbrick with white woodwork,
which was popular in E ngland from approximately 1715 t o1 8 2 0 .
During this period, the question about women’s right to vote arose
but no party perceived a great and certain advantage in it. The
subject of enfranchising more male voters was not avital issue,
although there was a general acceptance that it should eventually
come about.
The Georgian era is also remembered as a time of social
reform under politicians and campaigners such as Robert Peel and
William Wilberforce, who notably fought for the prisoner form, social
justice and abolition of slavery. Crossing the borders of theBritish
Empire, the period is marked by the loss of American Colonies
during the American War of Independence.
On the other hand, the British Empire expands thanks to
people , such as statesmen Robert Clive (Clive of India) and
explorer Captain James Cook. All the typical symbols of the
Georgian era can be found in all of Jane Austen’s novels, namely:
the behaviour of distinct classes and their interests, position of
women in society, travelling dispos itions, entertainment and
furnishing of houses.
The England in which Jane Austen lived and worked was, on
one hand, structured by a long -established political and social
order and on the other, undergoing rapid and accelerating social
and economic change. The political and social institutions of the
nation were still those of the period historians sometimes, for
convenience, refer redto as ‘the long eighteenth century’. This is
the period beginning with the so -called ‘Glorious Revolution’ in
1688, when a group of English lords forced the Catholic King
James II into exile and replaced him with his Protestant sister Mary
and her Dutch husban d William, Prince of Orange. The revolution
established a constitution which, by the Bill of Rights of1689,
abolished the arbitrary exercise of power by the monarch and gave
real legislative and executive power to the Houses of Parliament:
the hereditary H ouse of Lords and primarily, the elected House of
Commons. The revolution brought to a close the political and
religious wars of the seventeenth century in England and is called
‘Glorious’ because it was, in England, peaceful, although it was not
so in Ire land and Scotland. The ‘long eighteenth century’ can most
usefully be taken to end in 1832, when the first of the nineteenth
century’s Reform Bills was finally, after a long struggle, passed by
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64qualifications for voting in elections for the Commons. For example,
wealthy property owners in the expanding industrial towns could
vote for the first time after 1832.
For the political settlement of (1688 –90)was not a
democratic one. The aristocracy, the titled nobility, the great
landowning families of ‘quality’ or ‘rank’, simply inherited political
power, with their most senior males sitting in the House of Lords.
But the right to vote for members of the Ho use of Commons was
also very restricted, mostly to the (male) gentry, those who held
property in the form of country estates. There were only a few
hundred aristocratic families in England in this period, but over
10,000 gentry’ families, out of a total po pulation that by 1801 was
over nine million.
English society in the long eighteenth century can thus be
divided politically into three groups: aristocracy, gentry and
everyone else. This last group included the vast majority of the
population with no pro perty who did manual work for a living: tenant
farmers, rural labourers and the increasing numbers of factory
workers and miners, who had no vote in anything. But among those
with no vote was also a very varied section of society often referred
to at the t ime as the ‘middling sort’. In the towns and cities this
included an expanding urban middle class whose property took the
form of stakes in manufacturing companies or trading concerns and
who were actively engaged in commerce. In both town and country,
itincluded those living off interest paid on capital investments, often
those who had retired from their own enterprises; and lawyers,
churchmen and officers in the armed services.
In October 1796, at the age of 21, Jane Austen started
writing what would be come Pride and Prejudice. It was published in
1813. It is hard to pinpoint exactly which year Pride and Prejudice is
set, the early 19th century is perhaps most likely. It is certainly
during a period when Britain and France gain a temporary peace,
as the last chapter mentions “the restoration of peace”. In Pride and
Prejudice, we witness the presence of the militia, which signifies
what Austen’s contemporary readers knew: Britain was at war with
revolutionary France.
The year 1789 brou ght about the French Revolution bringing
down the aristocratic rule of France. The “Declaration of the Rights
of Man and Citizen” was created and feudal privileges were
abolished. Anxiety soon followed amongst the aristocracy
elsewhere in Europe, as they worried these revolut ionary ideas
would spread and overthrow the ruling classes in other countries.
Tensions in Europe were running high ,culminating with the
beheading of the French king in 1793 and the French declaration of
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65soon drew in most of the nations of Western Europe into a lengthy
conflict.
Actions of war came in intervals, at times the countries of
Europe were at peace for shorter periods. From 1800 -1815 the
conflicts are known as the Napoleonic Wars, where France fought
against opposing coalitions, including Britain. The Napoleonic Wars
were characteristic for its constantly shifting allies; the one
continuous enmity was between Britain and France. It is difficult to
say where the French Revolutionary Wars ended and where the
Napoleonic Wars began, but after Napoleon’s seizure of power in
1799 France became an even more potent enemy to Britain.
Napoleon represented the new confidence in social mobility and
individual talent, which the French Revolution had brought. Nearly
all of Europe fell to Napoleon, he almost accomplished uniting
Western -Europe under one rule; something which had not been
seen since the days of Charlemagne in the 800s CE. The
unification of Europe was certainly a possible outcome in 1807 and
1810.
As the war spread, so did the new ideas and institutions that
the French Revolution had brought abou t. France and its’ radical
ideas, was thus a potent enemy against Britain’s independence,
and against its’ aristocratic landowners. Unlike m any of the coalition
partners, Britain was at war throughout the Napoleonic Wars, being
at peace with France only at intervals. However, being protected by
its naval supremacy and natural defences of being an island -nation,
the people of Britain experience dl i t t l ew a r f a r e .T h ep e o p l ew e r e
taxed, as to keep the war machine running, but otherwise life
continued as it had before. Badmouthing the French had after all
been a British trait for as long as anyone could remember.
In the year 1805, Admiral Nelson de feated an armada of
French and Spanish ships at Trafalgar, which caused the British to
admire the navy as superstars and national heroes. Although the
British mainland did not see any fighting, the underlying tension
caused by the French Revolution and the following wars are
present in Austen’s fiction. For instance, Pride and Prejudice’s Lady
Catherine has a rigid view on stepping over ones’ class boundaries;
asign of the nervousness which the aristocracy felt. On the other
hand, we also see that some of t he aristocratic landowners could
adapt new ideas, e.g. Darcy is described as a liberal man. Hence,
the British populace was not immune to the ideas seeping from
France.
The class anxiety was accompanied by the changes brought
by the Industrial Revolution. Until 1800, the work of the world was
done by people with tools. After 1800 manual labour was slowly
being replaced by machines. The first country to be profoundlymunotes.in

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66affected by industrialization was Great Britain, starting in the 1780s
with inventions in t he textile industry. Armed with new inventions to
speed up productivity, factories and factory owners in the North
became major parts of Britain’s economic system. Britain was
moving from an agricultural economy to a more urban industry,
which signifies th at the base of power was shifting from landowners
to factory owners and tradesmen. Britain thus became a money
power, or as Napoleon put it, “a n ation of shopkeepers”. The fact
that the economy is changing and that the base of power is shifting
are evident with the gentry in decline, which we will witness in both
Pride and Prejudice and Persuasion. In the novels, there are signs
of nervousness regarding class boundaries, signalling social
changes in their infancy.
Austen began working on Persuasion in 1815 ,t h ey e a rw h e n
the Napoleonic Wars definitively ended. It was published
posthumously in 1817. Persuasion is set in two periods of time:
1806, when Anne and Wentworth met and fell in love and in
1814/1815 when they meet again. In 1814 Napoleon was defeated
and exiled to Elba and Britain and France were finally at peace.
However, the following year Napoleon escaped and war was
renewed: the men of the navy were needed once more. That same
year Napoleon was definitively defeated, but despite his defeat the
world had utterly changed. “Wentworth and Anne are thus
embedded in hist ory, their own and the nations.”
The results of the Napoleonic Wars were the dissol ution of
the Holy Roman Empire and the first inklings of nationalism which
would be the basis for Germa ny and Italy’s respective consolidation
at the end of the century. Furthermore, the once glorious Spanish
Empire, ruled by the Habsburgs, unravelled during France’s
occupation of Spain. This effectually made impossible for the
Spanish colonies in America t or e v o l t .I fa n y o n ew a st h ew i n n e ro f
the Napoleonic Wars, it was Britain. In the following century, it was
the only empire left standing: with its supreme naval power and
steaming industry, the age of Pax Britannica began. The world
Austen describes is no t a fantasy world. Although the events above
are rarely explicitly mentioned in her fiction, they underline the
setting: which her contemporary readers would be aware of.
The dressing and costume during Georgian era saw the final
triumph of informal dress over the formal overdone styles of the
18th century with elaborate dresses, corsets and petticoats etc.
Woman’s fashions followed classical ideals (Neoclassical styles -
Grecian or Roman dress) with tightly laced corsets being replaced
by the high -waist ed, more natural figures. Women would often
wear different coloured clothes for home, dining, riding etc.
Materials were usually white muslin, or pale colours and usually
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67Hair styles also became more natural looking with curls over
theface and down the back (although sometimes it took quite a
while to achieve the ‘natural’ look). Women no longer wore wigs or
powered their hair in attempt to have elaborate hairstyles.
Conservative women still continued to wear mob caps. No
respectable wo men would leave the house without a hat or bonnet.
Underclothes consisted of a chemise and short stays (a short loose
corset) as well as a thin petticoat. Drawers tied around the waist
were begun to be worn in this period as well as stockings held up
by ga rters.
Gloves were always worn outside but could be worn inside
during a ball or a social call. They were always removed for dining.
Reticules were small material bags often hung from one wrist which
served t he purpose of a modern handbag. Parasols (like a modern -
day umbrella but made from material) were carried around to
protect the lady from the sun and decorated fans were also seen as
an important fashion accessory.
Men’s fashion followed much of the chang es of women’s
fashion –with men no longer wearing frilly shirts, donning lace,
embroidery or wearing corsets. Breeches became longer and
straighter –resembling modern day trousers. Breeches would finish
just past the knee at the boot top level) or extend down to the
ankles. Coats were cut -away at the front and were long at the
back with standing collars.
Shirts were often of plain white material and had tall standing
collars. Men often wore waistcoats which were highwaisted and
tight to the body. Men w ore knee high Hessian boots (from Hesse
in Germany). “The Dandy” –was slang for a fop, aperson who
overdresses and puts on airs –always a title given to a man. Beau
Brummel was a person who made Dandy fashion fashionable in the
Regency period and men tha t wanted to be considered fashionable
made efforts to follow the fashion trends that Brummell set.
Entertainment during Georgian era was through Dance; it
was a favourite pastime of people .Dances were often performed in
a Quadrille style (formation of fo ur)and dancing involved very little
interaction between males and females. The most popular dance
was thecotillion –an English country dance. The Waltz was
introduced to England (from Bavaria –Germany) during the early
1800s but was considered quite a s candalous dance and manyballs
would not allow it.
Dancing was most commonly done at Balls or in public
houses like Almack ’s.Many clubs were male only clubs such as
White’s where men (mostly gentleman) would go to socialise with
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68common pastime was an evening at the theatre watching plays or
opera. The lower classes had much less time to socialise and enjoy
life–but they also enjoyed goingto the theatre, street performances
and the pub.
The architecture during this era follows much of the style
with a focus on classical elegance. The buildings were often
completed with white stucco facades with usually majestic
entranceways with large Grecian columns. Buildings were usually
built as terraces or crescents with elegant wrought iron balconies.
5.3 ABOUT THE AUTHOR: JANE AUSTE N’S LIFE AND
WORK
Jane Austen was born December 16, 1775, to Rev. George
Austen and the former Cassandra Leigh in Steventon, Hampshire.
Like the families in many of her no vels, the Austen’s were a large
family of respectable lineage but no fortune. She was one of eight
children. Her letters to her only sister Cassandra (the surviving
letters date to 1796) are the primary source of biographical
information.
Although she nev er married, her letters to Cassandra and
other writings reveal several romantic entanglements, including a
very brief engagement (which lasted only one evening). She moved
several times around the English countryside, but information about
her work is some what sketchy.
She began to write as a teenager, though kept her work
hidden from all but her immediate family. Legend has it that while
she was living with relatives after her father’s death in 1805, she
asked that a squeaky hinge on the room’s swinging d oor not be
oiled. This way, she would have enough time to hide her
manuscripts before someone entered the room. Her brother Henry
helped her sell her first novel, ‘Sense and Sensibility’, to a publisher
in 1811. Her father unsuccessfully tried to get a pub lisher to look at
her novel ‘First Impressions’ when she completed it in 1797. This
was the novel that late r became ‘Pride and Prejudice’ and was
published in 1813 to highly favourable reviews. ‘Mansfie ld Park’
was published in 1814 and then ‘Emma’ in 1816 .T h et i t l ep a g eo f
each book referred to one or two of Austen’s earlier novels -
capitalizing on her growing reputation -but did not provide her
name.
In 1816, she began to suffer from ill health. At the time, it
was thought to be consumption but it is now surmised to have been
from Addison’s disease. She travelled to Winchester to receive
treatme ntand died there on July 18, 1817 at age 41.‘Persuasion’munotes.in

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69and ‘Northanger Abbey’ were published together posthumously in
December 1817 with a “Biographical Noti ce” written by her brother
Henry, in which Jane Austen was, for the first time in one of her
novels, identified as the author.
Jane Austen made her own restricted social world the centre
of her writing. Her novels have a unique and subtle charm, with an
unprecedented mixture of sharpness, fun, wit and wisdom. Critics
have accused Jane Austen of being peculiarly oblivious to the great
events occupying the world stage in her lifetime (American War of
Independence; Napoleonic Wars, Waterloo 1815...)
Jane Au sten´s view of the world and of human nature was
rooted in the 18th century. In Britain the18th century turned its back
on the excesses of the previous century t hat had led to civil war.
Order and the management of life -both social and individual -
accord ing to the dictates of reason rather than emotion was
considered necessary to hold in check Man’s violent, corrupt and
fundamentally volatile nature.
Using the material, she had at first hand, Jane Austen
fashioned her art. Almost all her action reported in dialogue, that is
conversation. When anything dramatic upsets the order and calm
lives of her characters, elopements, duels, death, it occurs off -
stage, belonging to a realm beyond her experience.
Jane Austen prized accuracy of detail and what she call ed
credibility. Such qualities give her novels great realism, the feeling s
that you have seen ,the places she describes and known her
characters personally. She depicted the domestic life of the
Regency period with photographic realism. She can be consider ed
a modern novelist because she concentrated on human beings and
their mutual reactions.
Austen’s novels are far from being openly didactic, but they
have a moral purpose that cannot be overlooked, even if her
subject -matter is in a sense trivial (a you ng woman finding a
husband). It was from the 18C novelists that Austen derived her
conception of the novel. She ow ed much to Richardson and
Fielding; her novels represent a feminisation of Fielding´s. She
relied more on dialogue and, as with Fielding; the comment is not
direct but implicit in the turn of the sentence. Both are examples of
the moralist as satirist. She owes much of her elegant prose, simple
and witty, occasionally stiff, to Addison and Steele. She has a
special gift for dialogue, especially comic dia logue and her satirical
humour is without excess of rhetoric or verbosity.
Novel writing in Jane Austen’s day was considered by some
to be trivial and unimportant. Jane was determined that the novelmunotes.in

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70should be taken seriously as other literary for ms. "The novel is a
work in which the greatest powers of the mind are displayed... the
most thorough knowledge of human nature, the happiest
delineation of its varieties, the liveliest effusions of wit and humour
are conveyed in the best -chosen language" . Austen finally saw
her work ("her children", as she called her books) published and
achieved recognition. Even the Prince Regent admired her work
and kept a set of her books in each of his royal houses.
In addition to her powers of observation, descript ion and
characterisation, Jane Austen was a moralist, believing firmly in a
moral code by which to judge human conduct. It was a code based
on honesty tempered by realism, "right" judgement and "good
sense". In each of the novels the heroine only gains her heart’s
desire after learning -sometimes painfully -self-knowledge. What
prevent sthis knowledge is often delusion -not seeing people as
they really are -and the reasons for this are inexperience,
inadequate knowledge and superficiality. Only experienc ea n dl o n g
association will reveal a person’s true nature. The subtlety and
intimacy of female relationships is one of the mainsprings of her art.
She depicts men solely in relation to women -negotiating the
pitfalls of the drawing room rather than the ba ttlefield.
In her first novels, Sense and Sensibility, and Northanger
Abbey, the source of her comedy –the conflict between illusion and
reality -is es sentially the confusion in a mature mind between
literature and life. Hence she proceeds in her later novels to
dissection and exposure of the more normal follies and illusions of
mankind. Mansfield, Emma and Persuasion were written after an
interval of more than ten years and her mind grew graver; it is as if
she could find folly, self -deception, irresp onsibility, silliness and
the individual lack of knowledge of himself or herself, no longer
merely funny; they became contemptible, even hateful to her.
Jane Austen didn’t intend to be famous. During her lifetime,
she only published anonymously, as “A Lad y.” Few people outside
of her family knew that she wrote her novels. Despite the large part
romance and courting play in her books, she never married. When
she died in 1817 at age 41, her gravestone only cited that she was
the daughter of a local Reverend George Austen. In an essay about
Austen, W. Somerset Maugham commented “It just shows that you
may make a great stir in the world and yet sadly fail to impress the
members of your own family.”
It wasn’t until 1872 that Winchester Cathedral added the
note to her memorial that she was “known to many by her writings.”
How did Austen’s work, particularly ‘Pride and Prejudice’, soar to
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71Her four novels ‘Sense and Sensibility’, ‘Pride and
Prejudice’,’ Mansf ield Park’ and ‘Emma’ grew in popularity and
made a modest sum while Jane was still alive -around 600 pounds
in six years, which is roughly equivalent to $60,000 today. At the
time, novels were not considered great literature; they were seen
more like pul p fiction. Poets were the real celebrities. For
comparison, Byron’s book of poems, The Corsair, sold 10,000
copies on the day it was published in 1814. Emma was also
published in 1814, but it took six months to sell 1,250 copies.
Austen’s modest reputatio nn a t u r a l l ye b b e du n t i la b o u t
50years after her death, when her nephew, James .Edward .
Austen -Leigh published’ A Memoir of Jane Austen’ in 1870. The
memoir was wildly popular and renewed interest in Austen’s novels
at Winchester Cathedral where Jane Austen was buried, after dying
near to it in College Street on the 18th July 1817, a time when the
genre of the novel had gained new levels of respectability and
popularity. The term “Janeites” was coined in a preface to an 1894
edition of ‘Pride and Prejudice’ to describe Austen admirers.
In the early twentieth century, references to Austen and her
novels began cropping up in other texts. Mark Twain expressed
distaste for Austen’s writing in ‘1897’s Following the Equator’,
insisting that an ideal library would not have her books in it. As
Mark Twain aimed verbal slings at other classic authors, this may
have merely signalled Austen’s transition to “serious literature.” In
1913, Virginia Woolf compared Jane Austen to Shakespeare. In
1926, Rudyard Kipling publishe da short story called “The
Janeites,” about a soldier recalling how he was forced to join a
secret society of devoted Austen fans. Through the 1930’s and
40’s, Austen’s books were increasingly included in classrooms and
academia.
Of course, it may be the numerous dramatizations of her
stories that solidified Austen’s superstar status. Starting in1940 with
Pride and Prejudice starring Laurence Olivier and Greer Garson,
popular film culture began mining Austen for inspiration and
churning out three to seven film versions of Austen novels per
decade. Pride and Prejudice adaptations, you might remember
from recent years include Colin Firth’s turn as Mr. Darcy in the 1995
BBC version and the recent 2005 movie with Keira Knightley as
Elizabeth. Or did you catch the Bollywood version in 2004, Bride
and Prejudice?
Works: Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813),
Mansfield Park (1814), Emma(1816), Northanger Abbey (1818),
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725.4 PLOT OVERVIEW
The novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’ begins with the news that a
wealthy young gentleman named Charles Bingley has rented the
manor of Nether field Park ,causes a great stir in the nearby village
of Longbourn, especially in the Bennethousehold. The Bennet’s
have five unmarried daughters -from oldest to youngest, Jane,
Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty and Lydia -and Mrs. Bennet is desperate to
see them all married. After Mr. Bennet pays a social visit to Mr.
Bingley, the Bennets attend a ball at which Mr. Bingley is present.
He is taken with Jane and s pends much of the evening dancing
with her. His close friend, Mr. Darcy, is less pleased with the
evening and haughtily refuses to dance with Elizabeth, which
makes everyone view him as arrogant and obnoxious.
At social functions over subsequent weeks, ho wever, Mr.
Darcy finds himself increasingly attracted to Elizabeth's charm and
intelligence. Jane's friendship with Mr. Bingley also continues to
burgeon and Jane pays a visit to the Bingley mansion. On her
journey to the house she is caught in a downpour and catches ill,
forcing her to stay at Nether field for several days. In order to tend
to Jane, Elizabeth hikes through muddy fields and arrives with a
spattered dress, much to the disdain of the snobbish Miss Bingley,
Charles Bingley's sister. Miss Bingl ey's spite only increases when
she notices that Darcy, whom she is pursuing, pays quite a bit of
attention to Elizabeth.
When Elizabeth and Jane return home, they find Mr. Collins
visiting their household. Mr. Collins is a young clergyman who
stands to in herit Mr. Bennet's property, which has been” entailed,"
meaning that it can only be passed down to male heirs. Mr. Collins
is a pompous fool, though he is quite enthralled by the Bennet girls.
Shortly after his arrival, he makes a proposal of marriage to
Elizabeth. She turns him down, wounding his pride. Meanwhile, the
Bennet girls have become friendly with militia officers stationed in a
nearby town. Among them is Wickham, a handsome young soldier
who is friendly toward sElizabeth and tells her how Darcy c ruelly
cheated him out of an inheritance.
At the beginning of winter, the Bingleys and Darcy leave
Nether field and return to London, much to Jane's dismay. A further
shock arrives with the news that Mr. Collins has become engaged
to Charlotte Lucas, Eliz abeth's best friend and the poor daughter of
a local knight.
Charlotte explains to Elizabeth that she is getting older and
needs the match for financial reasons. Charlotte and Mr. Collins get
married and Elizabeth promises to visit them at their new home. As
winter progresses, Jane visits the city to see friends (hoping alsomunotes.in

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73that she might see Mr. Bingley). However, Miss Bingley visits her
and behaves rudely, while Mr. Bingley fails to visit her at all. The
marriage prospects for the Bennet girls appear bl eak.
That spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte, who now lives near
the home of Mr. Collins’s patron, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, who is
also Darcy's aunt. Darcy calls on Lady Catherine and encounters
Elizabeth, whose presence leads him to make a number of vis its to
the Collins’s home, where she is staying. One day, he makes a
shocking proposal of marriage, which Elizabeth quickly refuses.
She tells Darcy that she considers him arrogant and unpleasant,
then, scolds him for steering Bingley away from Jane and
disinheriting Wickham. Darcy leaves her but shortly thereafter
delivers a letter to her. In this letter, he admits that he urged Bingley
to distance himself from Jane, but claims he did so only because he
thought their romance was not serious. As for Wickham ,h ei n f o r m s
Elizabeth that the young officer is a liar and that the real cause of
their disagreement was Wickham's attempt to elope with his young
sister, Georgianna Darcy.
This letter causes Elizabeth to re -evaluate her feelings
about Darcy. She returns home and acts coldly toward Wickham.
The militia is leaving town, which makes the younger, rather man
crazy Bennet girls distraught. Lydia manages to obtain permission
from her father to spend the summer with an old colonel in
Brighton, where Wickh am's regiment will be stationed. With the
arrival of June, Elizabeth goes on another journey, this time with
the Gardiners, who are relatives of the Bennets. The trip takes her
to the North and eventually to the neighbourhood of Pemberley,
Darcy's estate. She visits Pemberley, after making sure that Darcy
is away and delights in the building and grounds, while hearing
from Darcy's servants that he is a wonderful, generous master.
Suddenly, Darcy arrives and behaves cordially toward sher. Making
no mention o f his proposal, he entertains the Gardiners and invites
Elizabeth to meet his sister.
Shortly thereafter, a letter arrives from home, telling
Elizabeth that Lydia has eloped with Wickham and that the couple
is nowhere to be found, which suggests that they may be living
together out of wedlock. Fearful of the disgrace such a situation
would bring on her entire family, Elizabeth hastens home. Mr.
Gardiner and Mr. Bennet go off to search for Lydia, but Mr.Bennet
eventually returns home empty -handed. Just whe n all hope seems
lost, a letter comes from Mr. Gardiner saying that the couple has
been found and that Wickham has agreed to marry Lydia in
exchange for an annual income. The Bennets are convinced that
Mr. Gardiner has paid off Wickham but Elizabeth learns that the
source of the money and of her family's salvation was none other
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74Now married, Wickham and Lydia return to Long bourn
briefly, where Mr. Bennet treats them coldly. They then depart for
Wickham's new assignment in the North of England. Shortly
thereafter, Bingley returns to Nether field and resumes his courtship
of Jane. Darcy goes to stay with him and pays visits to the Bennets
but makes no mention of his desire to marry Elizabeth.
Bingley, on the other hand, presses his suit and propo ses to
Jane, to the delight of everyone but Bingley's haughty sister. While
the family celebrates, Lady Catherine de Bourgh pays a visit to
Longbourn. She corners Elizabeth and says that she has heard that
Darcy, her nephew, is planning to marry her. Since she considers a
Bennet an unsuitable match for a Darcy, Lady Catherine demands
that Elizabeth promise to refuse him. Elizabeth spiritedly refuses,
saying that she is not engaged to Darcy but that she will not
promise anything against her own happiness. Al ittle later, Elizabeth
and Darcy go out walking together and he tells her that his feelings
have not altered since the spring. She tenderly accepts his
proposal and both Jane and Elizabeth are married.
5.5 SETTINGS
Every place in the novel is described i n such detail that it
would be almost impossible for those places not to exist on earth.
We are not given much geographical information in the novel Pride
and Prejudice but we can find some realistic places and locations
which Jane Austen knew very well. T his brings us to analyse
places, which Austen knew very well. Furthermore, Jane Austen's
Location claims that the fictional Longbourn, Netherfieldand the
village Meryton, Hertfordshire could be most likely a part of
Hampshire, where Austen spent most of he r life (Steventon, Ashe,
Basingstoke) (Jane Austen's Location, 2004). The Goodnestone
castle in Kent, surrounded by a large park, was a model for
Rosings, home of Catherine de Burgh. Jane Austen knew the
castle well as she spent a lot of time there as ague st. A first version
of Pride and Prejudice was written after her first stay at
Goodnestone with Bridges family.
She was not staying in the actual castle, but nearby in a
smaller detached house called Rowling House, which was two
kilometres from Good nestone. It might have been model for the
fictional parish house of Mr Collins, which had been also standing
close by to Rosings. If we are not counting London and Brighton,
there is one more significant location mentioned in Pride and
Prejudice and that is Derb yshire with the Peak District national
park. The town Bakewell was a model for the fictional town
Lambton, where Elizabeth and Mr and Mrs .Gardiner stayed during
their trip to Peak District. Jane Austen had stayed there in1811,
when she was visiting Derby shire. Hotel Rutland Arms is stillmunotes.in

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75standing and they are still very proud about the fact that they are
connected with the famous writer. As they are claiming she was
staying in the room number two on the first floor which has a
beautiful view of the Rutlan d Square and Matlock Street. Also,
Chatsworth, which is close by, should not be missed out as this had
been the model forthe castle Pemberley. Its exteriors and interiors
were used as a setting for film Pride and Prejudice from 2005 as
well as a cliff Stan age Edge.
5.6 MAJOR CHARACTERS IN THE NOVEL
5.6.1 Elizabeth Bennet
Pride and Prejudice follows the story of Elizabeth, who is
getting to know herself through the eyes of others and by gradually
overcoming her own pride and prejudices, which are in the w ay of
finding someone, who she can love and admire. Elizabeth’s
character will be shown intwo examples.
First one is Elizabeth’s refusal of Darcy’s first proposal.
Elizabeth, blinded by pride, implies that she would never beable to
accept his offer due to his lack of gentlemanlike behaviour. She
calls him selfish and arrogant because he was responsible for
separating her sister Jane from Mr Bingley. What she does not
realise at the time is that her behaviour does not differ to his. Her
judgement is based on her family background and Darcy had based
his on his own family background, while separating Mr Bingley from
Jane.
Second one is described later in the story, when Lady
Catherine comes to see Elizabeth inregards to Darcy’s marriage
proposal, which Lad yC a t h e r i n ed o e sn o ta p p r o v e .A tt h i sp o i n t ,
Elizabeth has already changed her mind about Darcy, which also
shows in the way she speaks about him. Miles (2003) implies that
Bennet’s family is classified as middle class, which puts Elizabeth
inanuneasy si tuation in regards to the marriage with Mr Darcy,
who has anaristocratic background. Elizabeth is aware of this
difference, but does not want to acknowledge it, while speaking to
Darcy’s aunt Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Elizabeth even provokes
her by saying that Mr Bennet and Mr Darcy are both gentlemen;
therefore, they are both the same. She only wanted to put Lady
Catherine back in her place, trying to point out that the word
“gentle” also stands out for ideology, which states that gentleman
should show ind ication to certain values and not the rank, he is
born to.
This way Elizabeth wants to show Lady Catherine that moral
values do not automatically come, when a man is born to higher
rank.Moral values should be noticed more than the social status.
This put s Elizabeth in a winning position in this argument. Evenmunotes.in

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76nowadays, each class has its specification and it is hard to marry a
person from different rank, as they have specific way of dressing
up, speech and even their movements differ.
In both cases, Eliz abeth reacts provocatively and
energetically. Unfortunately for her, she also jumps quickly into
judgements, for example, in the first case ,t h e letter of explanation
from Mr Darcy forces her to re -evaluate her previous conclusions.
Even in her blindest moments, Elizabeth Bennet is an
unfailing attractive character. She is described as a beauty and has
especially expressive eyes but what everybody notices about her is
her spirited wit and her good sense. Mainly because of that good
sense, Elizabeth is he r father's favourite child and her mother's
least favourite. Her self -assurance comes from a keen critical
mind and is expressed through her quick -witted dialogue.
Elizabeth's sparkling and teasing wit brings on Lady
Catherine's disapproval and Darcy 's admiration. She is always
interesting to listen to and always ready to laugh at foolishness,
stating, "I hope I never ridicule what is wise or good. Follies and
nonsense, whims and inconsistencies do divert me, I own and I
laugh at them whenever I can." Because of her exceptional powers
of observation, Elizabeth's sense of the difference between the
wise and foolish, for the most part, is very good.
In spite of her mistake in misjudging Wick ham and Darcy
and her more blameable fault of sticking stubbornly to that
judgment until forced to see her error, Elizabeth is usually right
about people. For example, she painfully recognizes the
inappropriate behaviour of most of her family and she quickly
identifies Mr. Collins as a fool and Lady Catherine as a tyrant.
However, this ability to size people up leads her too far at times.
She proceeds from reasonable first impressions of Darcy and Wick
ham to definite and wrong conclusions about their characters. Her
confid ence in her own discernment —ac o m b i n a t i o no fb o t hp r i d e
and prejudice —is what leads her into her worst errors.
5.6.2 Fitzwilliam Darcy
The character of Mr Darcy goes through several changes
throughout Pride and Prejudice, from the marriage prospect wo rth
“ten thousand a year”, to “the proudest, most disagreeable man in
the world” (Austen, p. 8) during the course of one evening then to
the saviour of the Bennets’ grace (Austen, p. 209) and by not
standing up to take credit for what he has sacrificed for them, he
truly changes the doubt that has been installed in the reader
through his pride and becomes the romantic hero, winning
Elizabeth’s heart. Through declaring how he has fallen in love with
Elizabeth against his better judgement, Mr .Darcy’s pride a lsomunotes.in

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77makes his first proposal to Elizabeth disastrous (Austen, p. 125).
Critics argues that, “Darcy’s character resonates with a Romantic
need for self -expression; he is unable to repress the startling
strength of his feeli ngs in the first proposal scene and cries out’ with
more feeling tha npoliteness’ after hearing the news of Lydia’s
elopement.”, yet this is reinterpreted to him being uncomfortable
away from home and troubled with worry for his sister, something
that Mr Darcy himself indicates in Pride an d Prejudice .
It is argued, “Darcy reflects the ‘dilemma of masculinity’ that
emerged towards the Sarah Wootton, “The Byronic in Jane
Austen’s Persuasion and Pride and Prejudice”, The Modern
Language end of the eighteenth century when politeness, which
could easily be mistaken for effeminacy, ceased to be the dominant
ideal”. The character of Mr Darcy can be seen as a Byronic hero, in
the sense that he is an isolated, brooding and proud man, “By
introducing the usually isolated Byronic hero into an intimate ,
domestic setting, Austen exposes the more unappealing aspects of
his character”
Darcy exhibits all the good and bad qualities of the ideal
English aristocrat —snobbish and arrogant, he is also completely
honest and sure of himself. Darcy is not actuall yat i t l e dn o b l e m a n ,
but he is one of the wealthiest members of the landed gentry —the
same legal class that Elizabeth's much poorer family belongs to.
While Darcy's sense of social superiority offends people, it also
promotes some of his better traits. A s Wickham notes in his sly
assessment, "His pride never deserts him; but with the rich, he is
liberal -minded, just, sincere, rational, honourable and perhaps
agreeable —allowing for fortune and figure."
It is, in fact, his ideal of nobility that makes Da rcy truly
change in the novel. When Elizabeth flatly turns down his marriage
proposal and tells him that it was ungentle manly, Darcy is startled
into realizing just how arrogant and assuming he has been. He
reflects later why he was that way: "I was spoil ed by my parents,
who though good themselves …allowed, encouraged, almost
taught me to be selfish and overbearing …to think meanly of all the
rest of the world." Darcy's humbling makes him more sensitive to
what other people feel. In the end, he is willing to marry into a
family with three silly daughters, an embarrassing mother Wickham
as a brother -in-law. It may be that he becomes more easy -
going about other people's faults because he is now aware of his
own.
5.6.3 Jane Bennet
Jane is the oldest of the Bennet sisters, she is 22 years old.
She is described as the most beautiful of all the sisters and one of
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78closest friend and confidant. They are together al most all the time
that they can and when they are far away from each other they
keep in touch with letters. She is the person Elizabeth trusts the
most and the first one to know about her feelings for Darcy,
because they know everything about each other. Jane’s personality
contrasts with Elizabeth’s. Jane is cheerful, good hearted, gentle,
sweet and shy. She is sensible as Elizabeth but not as clever. Jane
has always a positive and cheerful opinion about everything and
everyone and this is seen in almost every conversation where she
appears .She always sees the good side of the situations and never
criticizes anybody, not even in the worse situations. For example,
when her sister tells her that she thinks Bingley left because her
sisters and Darcy want to keep him away from her so that their
relationship will not progress, she says that she probably
misinterpreted Bingley’s signals and that he probably does not like
her as much as she thought. When talking about her sister’s
personality, Elizabeth says the following:
“Oh! you are a gre at deal too apt, you know, to like people in
general. You never see a fault in any body. All the world is
good and agreeable in your eyes. I never heard you speak ill
of a human being in my life.”
As Elizabeth’s confidant, sh e helps her all along the stor y
and offers her a positive interpretation of every negative situation in
which they are involved. Her good nature and cheerfulness only
bring her one problem: as she is friendly with everyone, Bingley
was not sure of her corresponding his feelings. Even i f she is in
love with him, she does not show that with her behaviour, because
she is with him as sweet and nice as she is with everyone else.
This is what makes Darcy think Ja ne is indifferent to his friend and
that is the reason why he takes him away so t hat he prevents his
friend from getting hurt. This is the fragment where Darcy talks
about Jane’s behaviour with Bingley in a letter to Elizabeth:
“Her look and manners were open, cheerful and engaging as
ever, but without any symptom of peculiar regard ( …) the
serenity of your sister's countenance and air was such as
might have given the most acute observer a conviction that,
however amiable her temper, her heart was not likely to be
easily touched."
The oldest and most beautiful of the Bennet daughters, Jane
has a good heart and a gentle nature. As Elizabeth's confidant,
Jane helps to keep her sister's tendency to be judgmental in check
by offering positive interpretations of negative situations. Jane's
desire to see only the best in people becomes rathe re x t r e m ea t
times, as in her disbelief that Wickham could be a liar, but she is
not so entrenched in her world view that her opinion cannot be
changed. Take, for example, her relationship with Caroline Bingley.munotes.in

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79When Jane finally recognizes Miss Bingley's insincerity, she stops
making excuses for her and does not pursue the friendship.
However, when she and Miss Bingley become sisters -in-law, Jane's
good nature causes her to receive Miss Bingley's friendly overtures
with more responsiveness than Miss Bingle y deserves.
Although Jane enters one of the happiest and most
successful marriages in the novel, her relationship with Bingley is a
rather static one. Just as she is consistently good and kind, her
feelings and regard for Bingley never falter or change. She feels
sorrow when he leaves, of course, but that does not diminish her
love for him. Their relationship, while pleasant, is not marked by the
range of emotions that Elizabeth and Darcy f eel for one another.
Her marriage, then, is favourable because she and Bingley married
for love and are compatible, but it is not quite ideal because it lacks
the depth found in Elizabeth and Darcy's marriage.
5.6.4 Mr. Bennet
Mr.Bennet is married to Mrs .Bennet and they are parents of
five girls. They live in Longbourn, in Hertfordshire. They are a
middle -class family, owners of land but not wealthy. Mr. Bennet is
an intelligent man, but he is most of the time alone in his library,
where he hides and tri es to avoid taking an active role in the family.
He got married to Mrs. Bennet twenty -three years before the action
happens and their marriage has been unhappy, but it was
impossible to get divorced at that time. Mr. Bennet was captivated
by youth and beau ty and he decided to marry her soon after they
met. But he soon saw the consequences of this: Mrs.Bennet has an
illibe ral mind and weak understanding and this soon resulted in the
end of any real affection between them. Their mutual respect and
esteem have disappeared, and he usually makes fun of her
ignorance. He enjoys books and living in the country.
His personality has to be pointed out: he is sarcastic and
witty and he makes ironic comments almost all the time. He reacts
like this because of the ridic ulous behaviour of his wife, which
drives him to exasperation. He is a sympathetic figure for the
readers. He usually does not take situations in his family’s life
seriously; he has assumed a detached attitude with bursts of
sarcastic humour. A couple of e xamples of these situations are the
following:
When Mrs. Bennet asks him to change Elizabeth’s mind to
make her marry Mr. Collins, this is what he says to her
daughter:
“An unhappy alternative is before you, Elizabeth. From this
day, you must be a stranger to one of your parents. Your
mother will never see you again if you do not marry Mr.
Collins and I will never see you again if you do.”munotes.in

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80Here he shows that Elizabeth is hisfavourite daughter,
because he is worried about her future and he does not want her to
be stuck in an unhappy marriage just like it happened to him. He
prefers to risk the rest of his family, who will be left with nothing
when he dies, than to sacrific e his favourite girl making her get
married to someone who is as ignorant as h isown wife and who
would make h isdaughter’s life miserable, only to assure financial
security for the whole family.
As it is characteristic in his interventions, he expresses his ideas
with sarcasm and he makes it look as it is not a serious topic.
When he writes a letter to Mr. Collins announcing Elizabeth
and Darcy’s engagement, he says to him:
“I must trouble you once more for congratulations. Elizabeth will
soon be the wif e of Mr. Darcy. Console Lady Catherine as well
as you can. But, if I were you, I would stand by the nephew. He
has more to give.”
In this fragment Mr. Bennet’s satirical comments are referred
to how he was right about h isdaughter no t marrying Mr. Collins,
because she will be so much better married to Darcy: she will be
happier and she will have a better and more comfortable life. Even
if he did not really get involved too much in his daughter’s
problems, the little advice he gave to her resulted on Elizabeth
being a lot better settled than she would be if she had followed her
mother’s advice.
So, all together, Mr. Bennet is one of the least mobile
characters in the book. In a novel in which people are active visiting
neighbours or go ing on trips, Mr. Bennet is rarely seen outside of
his library. His physical retreat from the world signifies his
emotional retreat from his family. Although he is an intelligent man,
he is lazy and apathetic and chooses to spend his time ridiculing
the we aknesses of others rather than addressing his own problems.
His irresponsibility has placed his family in the potentially
devastating position of being homeless and destitute when he dies.
He recognizes this fact, but does nothing to remedy the situation,
transforming him from a character who is simply amusing into
someone whom readers cannot help but feel some degree of
contempt for.
5.6.5 Charles Bingley
Charles Bingley is Darcy’s best friend. He is twenty -two and
he is a wealthy landowner who comes from a rich family. He has
two s isters, one married, Mrs. Hurst and the other one single, Miss
Bingley, who wishes to marry Mr. Darcy. Mr. Bingley is defined by
his friendliness, cheerfulness and good nature. He is extremely
agreeable and he is happy with ev erything: his personality remindsmunotes.in

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81usof Jane’s, who never saw a fault on anybody. When the older
Bennet sisters meet him, they describe him as the perfect
gentleman:
Jane: “He is what a young man ought to be: sensible, good
humoured, lively and I never sa wsuch happy manners! –So
much ease, with such perfect breeding!”
Elizabeth: “He is also handsome, which a young man ought
likewise to be, if he possibly can.His character is thereby
complete”
When he arrives to the new town, he soon becomes
everybody’ sf r i e n dand everyone thinks highly of him because of his
openness and nice temper towards everyone he meets. Bingley
and Jane Bennet are perfect for each other and when they finally
get married, Mr. Bennet comments how ami able and generous they
both are and how similar their personalities are:
“I have no doubt that of your doing very well together. Your
tempers are by no means unlike. You are each of you so
complying, that nothing will ever be resolved on; so easy,
that every servant will cheat you; and s o generous, that you
will always exceed your income.”
Bingley’s personality represents a big contrast if we compare
it to Darcy’s. But in the novel, the narrator tells us about their
friendship and how they get along so well because of their
differences: Darcy likes Bingley because of his openness and
because he does what he says and Bingley likes Darcy because he
is clever and has a strong and reliable opinion.
“Between him and Darcy there was a very steady friendship,
in spite of a great opposition of character. Bingley was
endeared to Darcy by the easiness, openness and ductility
of his temper, (…) On the strength of Darcy’s regard B ingley
had the firmest reliance and of his judgment the highest
opinion”
5.6.6 Mrs. Bennet
Silly, emotional and irrationa l, Mrs. Bennet's behaviour does
more to harm her daughters' chances at finding husbands than it
does to help. She encourages Kitty and Lydia's bad behaviour and
her attempts to push Elizabeth into an unwanted marriage with Mr.
Collins show her to be insens ible of her children's aversion to a
loveless marriage. Mrs. Bennet is concerned with security rather
than happiness, as demonstrated by her own marriage to a man
she cannot understand and who treats her with no respect.munotes.in

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82Mrs. Bennet’s name is never mentioned, but we know she is
the daughter of a lawyer from Meryton, Mr. Gardiner. She is the
mother of the five Bennet sisters and she has been married to Mr.
Bennet for more than twenty years, so we can guess she is in her
forties. What is more character istic of Mrs. Bennet is her ignorance
and her silly personality: “She was a woman of mean
understanding, little information and uncertain temper”. This is
displayed with almost everything she does, but the fact that most
represents her weak understanding i s her obsession to get her five
daughters married. This is all she wants and all she lives for. The
novel starts with Mrs. Bennet telling her husband to introduce
himself to Bingley so that they have a chance to get one of their
daughters married to him; a nd by the time the story ends she is
extremely happy to have three of her daughters married. This
character is a caricature that brings a lot of comic situations to the
novel, because her behaviour turns out to be ridiculous most of the
time. One of these comical situations that appear all along the book
is when she fancies herself nervous when she is dissatisfied with
something:
``Mr. Bennet, how can you abuse your own children in such
way? You take delight in vexing me. You have no compassion on
my poor nerves.''
She is the one that encourages Lydia to go to Brighton to
follow the militia, even if that is not the best option for her daughter,
which is the reason why she is able to run away with Wickham. She
also pushes Elizabeth to make her marry Mr. Col lins, showing her
insensitivity in front of her daughter’s aversion to a loveless
marriage.
She is the character that exemplifies the most the first and
probably most famous quote of the novel: “It is a truth universally
acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune
must be in want of a wife.”
She t ruly believes in this statement and if all the single men
who have good fortune want wives, her task is to be there and
make her daughters become the wives of any rich men she can
find. This is the reason why she is so happy when she knows about
the new neighbours coming to Nether field and why she is so
surprised and delighted when she hears about the new neighbour’s
income. But her behaviour in these situations makes her look
ridiculous.
Her most desired dream is to marry all her daughters well,
but she does not worry about their future lives and whether they will
be happy married to someone they do not want to be with. But this
isexactly what happened to her: she got married when she wasmunotes.in

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83young and now all the affection and respect in the marriage is
gone, but they cannot get divorced. She is trapped in an unhappy
marriage with a husband that makes fun of her most of the time, but
she does not seem to want a different future for her daughters. So
she dedicates all her time to plan and perform ridiculous strategies
totry to get their daughters married. For example: she makes Jane
go on horseback to Nether field instead of carriage when she
knows it’s about to rain so that she has to stay there with Bingley
for a few days.
5.6.7 Lydia Bennet
Emotional and immature, Lydia is the Bennet daughter who
most takes after her mother. Lydia's misbehaviour stems from a
lack of parental supervision on the parts of both her mother and
father. Her marriage t o Wickham represents a relationship that is
based on physical gratification. Lydia does not think, sh e simply
acts upon her impulses and that impulsiveness, combined with
negligent parents, leads to her near ruin.
Lydia is the youngest of the Bennet siste rs, she is fifteen
years old. She is the one who most takes after her mother. She is
good humoured, emotional, immature and impulsive. She acts
without thinking and she flirts with all the gentlemen and officers.
Her personality combined with irresponsible parents results in Lydia
running away with Wickham. This brings disrespect for the whole
family in front of society, but Lydia is not aware ofit. She ends up
marrying Wickham.
Something important about how she has been raised up is
particularly strange. At that time, there was a whole etiquette about
women being allowed to “come out” in public, which meant that
they were eligible for marriage. This was usually when girls were
around seventeen or eighteen years old, but younger sisters had to
wait until th e older ones were married. But in the Bennets’ case, we
know that Mrs. Bennet “had brought (Lydia) into public a tan early
age”. This is probably the reason why she flirts with everyone, does
not know how to behave properly and runs away with the first
officer that appears to be interested in her. The Bennets are
criticized by Lady Catherine when she knows that they did not
follow the tradition with their girls:” What, all five out at once? Very
odd! The younger ones out before the elder are married!” But for
Lydia, disrespecting her family and getting married with Wickham,
who is forced to do so, is not a problem at all, probably because
she does not think about it. When she goes back home after getting
married, she shows all her sisters how proud she is o fb e i n g
married. She even acts like she is superior because she is a
married woman before her older sisters and says that she can find
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845.6.8 George Wickham :
A charming and well -spoken young man, Wickham uses his
charisma to insinuate hi mself into the lives of others. His behaviour
throughout the novel shows him to be a gambler who has no
scruples about running up his debts and then running away. His
mercenary nature regarding women is first noted by Mrs. Gardiner,
who comments on his sud den interest in Miss King. Like Elizabeth,
he possesses an ability to read people; however, he uses this
knowledge to his advantage. When he finds that Elizabeth dislikes
Darcy, for example, he capitalizes on her dislike to gain her
sympathies.
5.6.9 Char lotte Lucas
Although Charlotte's marriage of convenience to Mr. Collins
is criticized by Elizabeth, her situation and marriage is much more
realistic than is Elizabeth's for nineteenth -century Britain.
Elizabeth's story is a work of romantic fiction, but Charlotte's is a
mirror of reality. Even though Elizabeth cannot understand
Charlotte's reasons for marrying Mr. Collins, she does respect
Charlotte's sound management of her household and her ability to
see as little of Mr. Collins as possible. Whereas E lizabeth's
relationship with Darcy was what Austen's female readers may
dream of, Charlotte's marriage to Mr. Collins was the actual life they
would most likely have to face.
Charlotte Lu cas is Elizabeth’s best friend and their families
are neighbo urs. Sh e is introduced as a “sensible, intelligent young
woman, about twenty -seven”. She is not married and at that age,
she is considered already too old to find a good husband, because
she is neither particularly pretty nor rich. That is the reason why she
isled to marry Mr. Collins, the Bennet’s cousin, who is ignorant and
will not make her happy. But she knows that he is probably her last
chance to marry and she wants to leave her parents’ house to be
established in her own home, so she flirts with Mr. Coll ins after
Elizabeth has rejected him and they are soon engaged. This shows
how truly limited the possibilities were for women at that time ,their
only way of having their own house, being respected and having
money was ,getting married. A curious fact is t hat she married a
man who is younger tha nh e r and that was uncommon in that era,
because even if Mr. Collins behaves like he was an old man, he is
only twenty -five.
In one of her conversations with Elizabeth, Charlotte gave
her opinion on happiness i n marriage: “Happiness in marriage is
entirely a matter of chance. If the dispositions of the parties are
ever so well known to each other, or ever so similar before -hand, it
does not advance their felicity in the least. (…) and it is better to
know as lit tle as possible of the defects of the person with whom
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85This comment shows the reason why she does not mind
getting married to Mr. Collins: Charlotte knows she do es not have
many possibilities and that she will not be happy anyw ay if she
stays at her parents’ home and becomes a poor old maid, so she
prefers to get married to him. Elizabeth does not understand her
point of view, but she respects her way of managing her household
and her ability to avoid Mr. Collins as much as poss ible when they
are at home.
In another moment, Charlotte explains her reasons to marry
Mr. Collins to Elizabeth: “I am not romantic, you know; I never was.
I ask only a comfortable home and considering Mr. Collins's
character, connection and situation in life, I am convinced that my
chance of happiness with him is as fair as most people can boast
on entering the marriage state.”
She tells her that she only wants a comfortable home of her
own, not her parents, because she w ants some sort of
independence and this was the best they could hope for at that
time. That is why she says that her chances of happiness with him
are high, even if she knows that she will not be happy to spend the
rest of her life with a man like him, but that his situation and
connect ions will l et her live a comfortable life and that is enough for
her. This contrasts with Elizabeth’s idea, because she prefers not to
marry at all before being in an unhappy marriage, but it also helps
Elizabeth realize that not everybody desires the same sort of life.
Charlotte’s situation is much more common than Elizabeth’s
one. While Elizabeth’s marriage is work of a romantic fiction,
Charlotte’s is a mirror of reality which shows the situation most
women at that time were most likely to face. Even i f this kind of
marriages were not what all women wanted, they had to get
married in situations like Charlotte’s one so that they did not end
being poor and alone.
5.7 POINTS TO REMEMBER
Time period in British history including the reigns of kings
George I, George II, George III and George IV. Also, called
Augustan era.
Marked great population growth and increased living standards.
A lot of money was spent on travel and the Great Tour.
Social reform under politicians and campaigners.
Rapid development o f novel, explosion of satire, melodrama,
poetry of personal exploration.munotes.in

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86The Georgian Era covered 1714 to 1837, marking the transition
in Europe from the Reformation to the Enlightenment.
Pride and Prejudice is penned by Jane Austin
Itconsist sofacomplex plot revolving around the daughters of
Mr and Mrs Bennet.
Its setting is fictional though, it resembles some of the places
that Austin has stayed
The major characters of the novel are Elizabeth Bennet, Darcy,
Bingley, Mr and Mrs Bennet, Lydia Benne t, Wickham and
Charlotte Lucas.
5.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.Discuss the political, social and economic events that shaped
the novel growth in Georgian era.
2.What are the main aspects of Enlightenment humanism which
gave rise to the need for a new type of nar rative -in the
eighteenth century?
3.What would be a character sketch of Darcy in Pride and
Prejudice?
4.Write the character -sketch of Elizabeth Bennet from Jane
Austen's Pride and Prejudice.
5.Do Jane Austen's plots fail to accomplish the requirements of
story, such as in Pride and Prejudice?
6.Write Short Notes on the following:
a.Plot of the Novel
b.Elizabeth Bennet
c.Lydia Bennet
d.Mr Bennet
e.Mrs Bennet
f.Charlotte Lucas
g.Fitzwilliam Darcey
h.Charles Bingley
i.Wickham
munotes.in

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87
Unit -6
JANE AUSTE N’sPRIDE AND PREJUDICE
PART II
Unit Structure :
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Summary of the Novel
6.3 Themes
6.3.1 Love and Marriage
6.3.2 Money
6.3.3 Class
6.3.4 Gender
6.4 Style of the Novel
6.5 Symbols Used
6.6 Points to Remember
6.7 Check your Progress
6.1 OBJECTIVES
To understand the entire story of the novel
To explore the possible themes of the novel
To find out the various symbols used in the novel
To attempt the essay questions.
6.2 SUMMARY OF THE NOVEL
In the beginning chapters from 1 to 5, the first chapter opens
with the excitement of the residents of Hertfordshire County’s by
the news that a wealthy single gentleman named Mr. Bingley has
rented Nether field Park, a large house with extensive grounds.
Mrs. Bennet urges her husband to go meet Mr. Bingley when he
arrives in the neighbourhood so that their five daughters may then
have the opportunity to meet the gentleman and attract his interest.
Sceptical of his wife's matchmaking scheme, Mr. Bennet
nonetheless visits Mr. Bingley, much to the delight of Mrs. Bennet
and their five daughters -Jane, Elizabe th (Lizzie), Mary, Catherine
(Kitty), and Lydia.
Although Mr. Bingley returns Mr. Bennet's visit, the Bennet
girls do not get the opportunity to meet him until a ball is held in themunotes.in

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88
neighbourhood. At the ball, Mr. Bingley is accompanied by his two
sisters ,h i sb r o t h e r -in-law, and a friend, Mr. Darcy. While Mr.
Bingley impresses everyone with his outgoing and likeable
personality, Mr. Darcy is declared to be proud, disagreeable, and
cold. He especially offends Elizabeth when she overhears him
refusing Bingl ey's suggestion that he dance with her.
After the ball, Jane and Elizabeth discuss Mr. Bingley's
attentions to Jane, and Jane admits that she found him to be
attractive and charming and was flattered by his admiration of her.
Elizabeth comments on the difference between her temperament
and Jane's, noting that Jane always looks for the good in people, a
quality that sometimes blinds her to people's faults. Meanwhile, at
Nether field, Mr. Bingley, his sisters, and Mr. Darcy review the ball
and the people who attended it. Although they differ in their
perceptions of the ball in general, they all agree on Jane's beauty
and sweet disposition.
Discussion of the ball continues when the daughters of the
Bennets' neighbour, Sir William Lucas, visit. The oldest daughter,
Charlotte, is Elizabeth's close friend, and commiserates with
Elizabeth over Mr. Darcy's snub. Charlotte acknowledges, however,
that Mr. Darcy's fa mily and wealth give him the right to be proud.
Elizabeth agrees, noting that her resentment of his proud nature
stems from his wounding her own pride.
In the chapter from 6 to 9, the narration begins with Jane
and Elizabeth spending more time with the re sidents of Nether field.
Caroline Bingley and Mrs. Hurst seem fond of Jane, and the
attraction between Mr. Bingley and Jane continues to grow.
Meanwhile, Elizabeth finds Miss Bingley and Mrs. Hurst to be self -
important but approves of their brother and the relationship that
appears to be developing between him and Jane. As for Mr. Darcy,
Elizabeth continues to view him as proud and reserved. She is
unaware that his original assessment of her has changed and that
he has begun to be unwillingly drawn to her. When he mentions
Elizabeth's "fine eyes" to Miss Bingley, Miss Bingley jealously
teases him about wanting to marry Elizabeth.
One morning, Jane receives a request from Caroline Bingley
to come to Netherfield for dinner. Observing that it looks like rain,
Mrs. Bennet sends Jane to Netherfield on horseback rather than in
a carriage so that she will have to spend the night at Netherfield
rather than ride home in the rain. The ploy works, and the next
morning, the Bennets receive a note from Jane informing the mt h a t
she is ill from getting soaked as she rode to Netherfield the
previous day and will have to remain at Netherfield until she is
better. Although Mrs. Bennet is satisfied at the thought of Jane
spending more time in Mr. Bingley's home, Elizabeth is co ncerned
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89
how her sister is faring. When Elizabeth reaches Netherfield, she
finds Jane to be sicker than her letter implied, and Miss Bingley
reluctantly invites her to stay with Jane.
Although at Nether field Elizabeth spends most of her time
with Jane, she eats dinner with the others and joins them in the
drawing room later in the evening. While Elizabeth is in their
company, Miss Bingley and Mrs. Hurst are polite to her, but when
she is absent, the two women take delight in criticizing her relatives
and the fact that she walked all the way to Nether field to see Jane.
Despite the ladies' disparagement of Elizabeth, Mr. Bingley and Mr.
Darcy voice their approval of her.
The next day Mrs. Bennet, Kitty, and Lydia visit Nether field
to check on Jane. While they are there, Elizabeth is embarrassed
by the gauche behaviour of her family. Mrs. Bennet fawns over Mr.
Bingley while simultaneously being blatantly rude to Mr. Darcy,
while Lydia is o verly forward with Mr. Bingley, reminding him that
he promised to give a ball. Mr. Bingley good -naturedly agrees that
he will give a ball as soon as Jane is better.
In chapter 10 to 14, the story further develops into Jane’s
continuation in recuperation a tN e t h e r field, Elizabeth again spends
the evening in the drawing room with the Bingleys, Hursts, and Mr.
Darcy. She observes Miss Bingley's obvious attempts to flirt with
Darcy, but Darcy seems unmoved by her efforts. Elizabeth is
energized by the group's discussion of character, especially the
contrast between Bingley and Darcy. Bingley, they note, is
impetuous and impressionable, while Darcy is ruled by reason and
reflection. Although Elizabeth frequently challenges Darcy's
comments, he continues to find her more and more attractive and
realizes that he "had never been as bewitched by any woman as he
was by her." Only the social class of some of her relatives prevent
him from pursuing the attraction.
The next evening, Jane is feeling well enough to join the
group in the drawing room after dinner. Jane's attention is quickly
monopolized by Bingley, leaving Elizabeth to again watch Miss
Bingley disturbing Darcy with idle chatter. Eventually, Miss Bingley
asks Elizabeth to walk around the room with her and t hen draws
Darcy into a conversation with them, which soon turns into a debate
between Darcy and Elizabeth over folly, weakness, and pride.
Troubled by his fascination with Elizabeth, Darcy resolves to
pay her less attention while she remains at Nether field. Meanwhile,
with Jane feeling better, both Jane and Elizabeth are eager to
return home. Mrs. Bennet resists sending them the carriage, so
they borrow Bingley's and depart on Sunday, five days after Jane's
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left Nether field so quickly, Mr. Bennet is glad to have them home
again.
The day after Jane and Elizabeth return home, their father
announces that a visitor will be arriving that afternoon. The visitor is
William Collins, Mr. Bennet' s cousin and the man who will inherit
Long bourn after Mr. Bennet dies. The estate is entailed, meaning
that, according to the terms of inheritance, it must go to a male heir.
Because Mr. Bennet's children are all female, the property will, by
law, go to t he next closest male relative: Mr. Collins. Mr. Bennet
points out to his wife and daughters that Mr. Collins, as heir, "may
turn you all out of this house as soon as he pleases" when Mr.
Bennet is dead.
Mr. Collins proves himself to be a curious blend of
pompousness and obsequiousness. He is proud of his standing as
the rector of the Hunsford parish and his patronage by Lady
Catherine De Bourgh, and he does not hesitate to speak at length
about his (or Lady Catherine De Bourgh's) opinions. At the same
time, however, he displays a relentlessly deferential manner,
apologizing at length, for example, when he offends Mrs. Bennet by
implying that they cannot afford to have a cook on staff. Mr. Bennet
finds his cousin absurd and is amused by him, while Kitty and Lydia
are shocked at Mr. Collins' announcement that he never reads
novels. When he instead tries to read to them from Fordyce's
Sermons, Lydia offends him by beginning to talk of something else.
In chapter 15 to 18, the narration continues with the feeling a sense
of obligation to the Bennet family because of the entail, Mr. Collins
plans to ask one of the Bennet daughters to marry him. After Mrs.
Bennet tells him that they expect Jane to be engaged soon, he
decides to propose to Elizabeth. That resolved, M r. Collins joins
Elizabeth and her sisters as they walk to Meryton where Lydia and
Kitty are excited to see some of the officers stationed there.
Everyone's attention is drawn to a new officer —George Wickham
—who impresses Elizabeth with his good looks and charming
manners. As Elizabeth and her sisters are speaking with Wickham,
Darcy and Bingley ride up to them. Elizabeth is intrigued to notice
that Darcy and Wickham recognize each other, and as the two men
barely acknowledge each other, Wickham looks p ale and Darcy
appears angry.
The next day, the Bennet sisters and Mr. Collins return to
Meryton to dine with Mrs. Bennet's sister, Mrs. Philips. Some of the
officers are also present, including Wickham, who seeks Elizabeth
out and sits next to her as she plays cards. Wickham astonishes
her by revealing the nature of his relationship with Darcy, telling her
that his father was Darcy's father's steward and that he and Darcy
grew up together. According to Wickham, he was a favourite of
Darcy's father and when Darcy's father died, Wickham was
supposed to have received a position as a clergyman at the rectory
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someone else —out of jealousy, Wickham presumes —and left
Wickham to fend for himself. Wic kham declares that both Darcy
and his sister are proud and unpleasant people, and Elizabeth
eagerly concurs with his opinion.
When Elizabeth shares Wickham's story with Jane, Jane
insists there must be some sort of misunderstanding on both
Wickham's and D arcy's parts. Elizabeth laughs at her sister's kind
nature and declares that she knows Wickham to be right. As they
are discussing the matter, Bingley calls to invite the family to a ball
at Netherfield in a few days. Everyone is delighted, including Mr.
Collins who, to Elizabeth's dismay, secures her promise that she'll
dance the first two dances with him.
At the ball, Elizabeth is disappointed to discover that
Wickham is absent and blames Darcy for making him
uncomfortable enough to avoid coming. She is so surprised,
however, when Darcy asks her to dance with him that she agrees
to it without thinking. As they dance, they are at first interrupted by
Sir William, who alludes to the anticipated engagement between
Jane and Bingley. Darcy seems troubled by th is, but is then
distracted when Elizabeth raises the subject of Wickham. They
discuss Wickham tensely and end their dance feeling angry and
dissatisfied.
At dinner, Elizabeth is mortified by her mother's incessant
chatter to Lady Lucas about Jane and Bing ley getting engaged.
She notices that Darcy can't help but hear her mother's loud
whispers and unsuccessfully encourages her mother to change the
subject. After dinner, Elizabeth's sense of humiliation grows as her
parents and all of her sisters except Jan e act foolishly and without
restraint. Mr. Collins adds to her misery by continuing to hover near
her, causing Elizabeth to be grateful when Charlotte engages him
in conversation.
In chapter 19 to 23, the narration extends in description of
the morning in Netherfield ball, Mr. Collins proposition to Elizabeth.
He outlines his motivation for proposing and promises never to
bring up the fact that she brings so little money to the marriage.
Torn between discomfort and the desire to laugh at his officious
mann er, Elizabeth politely refuses him. Mr. Collins, however, thinks
that Elizabeth is being coy in refusing him and lists the reasons why
it is unthinkable for her to refuse him —namely his own worthiness,
his association to the De Bourgh family, and Elizabe th's own
potential poverty. Mrs. Bennet, who is anxious for Elizabeth to
accept Mr. Collins, reacts badly to the news of her daughter's
resistance and threatens never to see Elizabeth again if she doesn't
marry him. When Mrs. Bennet appeals to Mr. Bennet f or support,
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she did marry Mr. Collins. Mr. Collins finally realizes that his suit is
hopeless and he withdraws his offer.
In the midst of the uproar over the proposal, Charlotte Lucas
visits the Bennets and learns of Elizabeth's refusal of Mr. Collins.
After Mr. Collins withdraws his offer, Charlotte begins spending
more time with him, and within a few days, he proposes to her.
Charlotte accepts, not for love but for security, and news of their
engagement outrages Mrs. Bennet and shocks Elizabeth, who
cannot believe her friend would marry where no love exists.
Meanwhile, Bingley leaves for what is supposed to be a
temporary visit to London, but Jane receives a letter from Caroline
Bing ley stating that the whole party has left for London and will not
return all winter. Caroline tells Jane that they are spending a great
deal of time with Georgiana Darcy and hints that she would like
Miss Darcy to marry her brother. Jane is dismayed by the news, but
believes that Caroline's letter is written in friendship and goodwill.
Elizabeth, on the other hand, is suspicious of the role Darcy and
Bingley's sisters may be playing in keeping him and Jane apart.
In chapter 24 to 27, the story precedes wit h Jane receiving
another letter from Caroline Bingley and unhappily reading that the
Bingleys have no plans of ever returning to Netherfield. The news
leaves Jane depressed and makes Elizabeth angry. She blames
Darcy and Bingley's sisters for interfering w ith her sister's
happiness, and resents Bingley for how easily he has been
manipulated by those close to him. Elizabeth's mood is lifted
somewhat by frequent visits from Wickham, who continues to be
attentive to Elizabeth.
Mrs. Bennet's brother and sister -in-law, Mr. and Mrs.
Gardiner, come to Longbourn to spend Christmas with the Bennet
family. Unlike Mrs. Bennet's other relatives, the Gardiners are well -
mannered and intelligent, and Jane and Elizabeth feel especially
close to them. Mrs. Gardiner cautions Elizabeth against
encouraging Wickham, telling her that the lack of fortune on either
side makes the hope of a match between the two of them
impractical and irresponsible. Mrs. Gardiner also observes Jane's
melancholy and invites her to return to London w ith them. Jane
happily accepts and anticipates being able to see Caroline Bingley
while she is there. However, after Jane is in London, a chilly
reception from Miss Bingley makes her realize that Elizabeth was
correct in her assessment of Bingley's sister as being a false friend
to Jane.
Meanwhile, Mr. Collins and Charlotte Lucas marry and
depart for Mr. Collins' parsonage in Hunsford, Kent. Before she
leaves, Charlotte asks Elizabeth to visit her soon and Elizabeth
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father and younger sister, Maria, to visit Charlotte, whom Elizabeth
has begun to miss. On their way to Hunsford, the group stops in
London overnight to stay with the Gardiners. While there, Elizabeth
and her aunt discuss Wickham's recent courtship of Miss King, an
heiress. Mrs. Gardiner views his actions as mercenary, but
Elizabeth defends his right to pursue a wealthy bride. Before
Elizabeth leaves London, her aunt and uncle invite her to
accompany them on a trip to northern Englan d in the summer, and
Elizabeth agrees.
The chapters 28 to 32 begin with the next day, when
Elizabeth, Sir William, and Maria leave London for Hunsford. When
they arrive at the parsonage, Charlotte and Mr. Collins greet them
enthusiastically and give them at o u ro ft h eh o u s ea n dg a r d e n .A s
they settle in, Maria is excited by the brief visit from Miss De
Bourgh, but Elizabeth in unimpressed.
The group is invited to dine at Lady Catherine De Bourgh's
residence, Rosings, soon after they arrive. Mr. Collins' d ramatic
descriptions of Lady Catherine and her home make Sir William and
Maria nervous, but Elizabeth approaches the visit with curiosity
rather than fright. As Elizabeth observes Lady Catherine, she
notices that her ladyship displays tireless interests in the smallest
details of life at the parsonage and in the village and never
hesitates to offer her opinion or advice. Lady Catherine also turns
her attention to Elizabeth and begins querying her about her family
and education, and Elizabeth shocks her by i nitially refusing to
disclose her age.
After a week passes, Sir William returns home. Elizabeth
spends much of her time walking outdoors, and the group dines at
Rosings twice a week. The news that Darcy and his cousin Colonel
Fitzwilliam will be visiting Lady Catherine, soon generates some
excitement, especially after the two gentlemen call on the
parsonage the morning after their arrival. Colonel Fitzwilliam
impresses Elizabeth with his gentle manlike manner, while Darcy
remains as aloof as ever.
About a week after Darcy and Fitzwilliam arrive at Rosings,
the residents of the parsonage are again invited to dinner. Lady
Catherine focuses much of her attention on Darcy, while Colonel
Fitzwilliam seems taken with Elizabeth. The colonel asks Elizabeth
to play the piano for him, and she complies. Darcy soon joins them
at the piano and it is not long before Elizabeth and Darcy become
engaged in a spirited conversation about Darcy's reserved
behaviour among strangers. Elizabeth reproaches him for not trying
harde r, while Darcy states that he simply isn't able to easily
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The next morning, Darcy visits the parsonage and is
surprised to find Elizabeth alone. Their conversation begins in a
stilted and awkward manner, but soon Elizabeth cannot resist
questioning him about whether Bingley plans on returning to
Netherfield. Discussion turns to Charlotte's marriage to Mr. Collins,
leading to a brief debate over what is an "easy distance" for a
woman to be separated from her family after she marries. Charlotte
comes home and Darcy soon leaves. Surprised by his presence,
Charlotte wonders if Darcy is in love with Elizabeth and closely
observes him in his subsequent visits.
In chapter 33 to 36, the story of Pride and Prejudice
commen ces with Elizabeth, who keeps encountering Darcy during
her walks through the park and is bothered when, rather than
leaving her alone, he continues to join her. One day, she meets
Colonel Fitzwilliam as she's walking and they begin discussing
Darcy's char acter. When Fitzwilliam relates the story of "a most
imprudent marriage" that Darcy saved Bingley from, Elizabeth
infers that he is speaking of Jane and reflects upon Darcy's actions
with anger and tears when she returns to her room. Feeling unfit to
see L ady Catherine and especially wanting to avoid Darcy,
Elizabeth decides not to go to Rosings that night for dinner, telling
Charlotte that she has a headache.
After everyone has left for Rosings, Elizabeth is startled by
the arrival of Darcy, who inquires about her health. After a few
minutes of silence, Darcy shocks Elizabeth with a declaration of
love for her and a proposal of marriage. Initially flattered by his
regard, Elizabeth's feelings turn to outrage as Darcy catalogues all
of the reasons why he ha s resisted his feelings for her —namely
how her inferior social class would degrade his own standing and
the problem of her family. Elizabeth in turn stuns Darcy by refusing
his proposal, stating, "I had not known you a month before I felt that
you were t he last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed
on to marry." She condemns him for separating Jane and Bingley,
for treating Wickham poorly, and for his arrogance and selfishness.
He accepts these accusations without apology, even with contempt.
However, he flinches when she accuses him of not behaving like a
gentleman and when Elizabeth finishes her denunciation of him,
Darcy angrily departs. Overwhelmed with emotion, Elizabeth cries
for half an hour afterwards and retreats to her room when everyon e
returns home.
As Elizabeth is walking the next morning, Darcy approaches
her, gives her a letter, and leaves her alone to read it. In the letter,
Darcy does not renew his marriage proposal, but instead addresses
Elizabeth's two main objections to him: h is involvement in Jane and
Bingley's breakup and his treatment of Wickham. Regarding Jane
and Bingley, Darcy states that he believed that Jane did not love
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well. He admits that he wanted to save Bingley from an imprudent
marriage, but he stresses that he felt that Jane's feelings were not
deeply involved because her calm nature never displayed any
indication of her strong attachment. Darcy adds that Jane's mother,
her three younger sisters, a nd even her father act improperly in
public and create a spectacle of themselves.
As for Wickham, Darcy states that he is a pleasant but
unprincipled man who is greedy and vengeful. Contrary to
Wickham's account, Darcy asserts that he did not deprive Wick ham
of the clergyman position without compensation. Instead, at
Wickham's request, Darcy gave him 3,000 pounds to use to study
law. Wickham squandered the money, tried to get more from Darcy,
and when that failed, tried to elope with Darcy's sister. Darcy directs
Elizabeth to ask Colonel Fitzwilliam for confirmation of anything she
questions in his letter.
At first, Elizabeth refuses to believe the letter, but after
rereading it and thinking back on the circumstances Darcy
recounts, she soon realizes, with a great deal of shock and chagrin,
that it is completely true. Reflecting upon her former behaviour and
views, she is horrified and ashamed and exclaims, "I have courted
prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where
either were concerned. Til l this moment, I never knew myself."
Depressed and ashamed, she finally returns to the parsonage, and
learns that both Darcy and Colonel Fitzwilliam have visited and left.
In chapter 37 to 42, the story reaches to Darcy and Colonel
Fitzwilliam leaving Hunsford the day after Darcy gave Elizabeth the
letter, and Elizabeth and Maria leaving about a week later. On their
way back to Longbourn, they stop at the Gardiners' in London for a
few days and Jane returns home with them. Back at home, Kitty
and Lydia agonize over the fact that the militia is leaving for
Brighton in two weeks. Elizabeth is pleased that Wickham will no
longer be around.
Elizabeth relates to Jane the details of Darcy's proposal and
all about the letter, with the exception of the part ab out Jane and
Bingley. Jane responds with shock and disbelief that Wickham
could have such a mercenary nature. She and Elizabeth discuss
whether this new information about Wickham should be made
public, but they decide against it because he will be leaving soon.
As the regiment prepares to depart, the wife of the colonel of the
regiment invites Lydia to accompany them to Brighton. Worried
about her sister's immaturity and flightiness, Elizabeth tries to
persuade her father to forbid Lydia's going, but he ref uses, implying
that he would rather risk Lydia embarrassing the family than deal
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Lydia leaves, and Elizabeth awaits her trip with the
Gardiners that summer. They leave in July and the Gardiners
decide to shorten the tr ip to visit only Derbyshire County, where
Mrs. Gardiner grew up. Derbyshire is also where Darcy's estate,
Pemberley, is located. When they arrive in Derbyshire, Mrs.
Gardiner decides that she wants to see Pemberley, and Elizabeth
agrees after finding out t hat none of the family will be there.
In chapter 43 to 46, the narration continues with Elizabeth
and the Gardiners arriving at the Pemberley estate and getting
impressed by the beauty of the house and the grounds. As they
tour the house, the housekeeper praises Darcy, saying "He is the
best landlord, and the best master that ever lived." The
housekeeper also confirms that Darcy isn't presently at home, but
she adds that he is expected the following day. As the Gardiners
and Elizabeth walk around Pemberley 's grounds, however, Darcy
suddenly appears. Mortified to have him find her there, Elizabeth's
emotions are further confused by his courteous and gentle tone. He
asks her if he can introduce his sister to her soon, and Elizabeth
agrees, wondering what this show of interest and pleasant
behaviour can mean. As she and her relatives drive away,
Elizabeth mulls over the encounter while her aunt and uncle
discuss Darcy's surprising geniality.
Darcy calls on Elizabeth and the Gardiners the next day with
his sist er and Bingley. Elizabeth immediately notices that Miss
Darcy is not proud, as Wickham had asserted, but painfully shy.
Elizabeth also watches Bingley and Miss Darcy interact and is
pleased to see no signs of a romantic attachment between them, as
was impl ied by Miss Bingley. In fact, Elizabeth believes she detects
several wistful references to Jane in his conversation. As Elizabeth
nervously tries to please everyone with her manners and speech,
the Gardiners observe both her and Darcy. From their
observati ons, they are sure that Darcy is very much in love with
Elizabeth, but they are uncertain about Elizabeth's feelings for him.
Elizabeth is also uncertain, and lays awake that night trying to
determine what her feelings for Darcy are.
The next day, the Gar diners and Elizabeth go to Pemberley
at Darcy's and Miss Darcy's invitation. Mr. Gardiner goes fishing
with the men while Mrs. Gardiner and Elizabeth join Georgiana,
Miss Bingley, Mrs. Hurst, and Georgiana's companion at the house.
Although Miss Bingley tr eats Elizabeth coldly, Elizabeth attributes
her behaviour to jealousy. When Darcy returns from fishing, his
behaviour shows that he is clearly attracted to Elizabeth. Miss
Bingley attempts to allude to Elizabeth's former attachment to
Wickham and to make h er look foolish by bringing up her sisters'
attachment to the regiment in Meryton, but Elizabeth's calm
response makes Miss Bingley look ill -natured instead. After
Elizabeth and the Gardiners leave, Miss Bingley tries again tomunotes.in

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demean Elizabeth, this time by criticizing her appearance. She is
deflated, however, by Darcy's remark that Elizabeth is "one of the
handsomest women of my acquaintance."
Elizabeth soon receives two letters from Jane that shatter
any hopes she has of further exploring her relations hip with Darcy.
In the letters, Jane tells her that Lydia has run away with Wickham
from Brighton and that they probably have not gotten married. They
were spotted headed toward London, so Mr. Bennet is going there
to search for them and Jane asks that Mr. Gardiner join Mr. Bennet
in London to assist in the search.
Dismayed by the news, Elizabeth rushes to get her uncle,
but is met there by Darcy. Troubled by Elizabeth's agitation, Darcy
sends for her uncle and stays with her to try to calm her down.
Overc ome by what she has learned, Elizabeth begins to cry and
tells Darcy what has happened. He expresses concern and worries
that his own silence regarding Wickham is, in part, responsible for
the present situation. Thinking he is only in the way, Darcy leaves .
Elizabeth realizes that she loves him, but fears that the family
scandal will ruin her chances of his wanting her for a wife. The
Gardiners soon arrive, and they and Elizabeth leave immediately
for Longbourn.
In chapter 47 to 50, as Elizabeth and the Ga rdiners rush
back to Longbourn, they discuss Lydia's situation. Although the
Gardiners are hopeful that Wickham and Lydia have married,
Elizabeth doubts that is the case. She knows Wickham's mercenary
nature too well to believe that he would marry someone like Lydia
who has no money.
When they reach Longbourn, they find that Jane is running
the household. Mr. Bennet has gone to London, Mrs. Bennet is
indisposed in her room with hysterics, and Kitty and Mary are
absorbed by their own thoughts. The family's distress continues to
increase, especially because Mr. Bennet has not written with news
of his progress in locating Lydia and Wickham in London. Mr.
Gardiner leaves to join Mr. Bennet in London, and soon Mr. Bennet
returns home, leaving Mr. Gardiner to man age the situation. Upon
his return, Mr. Bennet admits to Elizabeth that she was right in
warning him not to let Lydia go to Brighton and seems resolved to
be stricter with Kitty.
Meanwhile, the whole town gossips about Wickham's
disreputable nature and sp eculates on Lydia's future. A letter
arrives from Mr. Collins condemning Lydia's behaviour and advising
the Bennets to disown her in order to save the rest of the family's
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Relief comes at last with a letter from Mr. Gardiner informing
the fami ly that Lydia and Wickham have been found. Although they
are not married, they have been convinced to do so, provided that
Wickham's debts are paid and Lydia receives a small yearly
stipend. Mr. Bennet agrees to the conditions, but he fears that a
much gre ater sum must have been paid out to persuade Wickham
to marry Lydia. He assumes that Mr. Gardiner must have spent a
great deal of his own money, and he dislikes the idea of being
indebted to his brother -in-law.
Upon hearing that Lydia is going to be marri ed, Mrs.
Bennet's mood immediately shifts from hysterical depression to
hysterical giddiness. Forgetting the shameful circumstances under
which the marriage will take place, she begins calculating how
much Lydia will need for new wedding clothes and planni ng to
personally spread the good news to her neighbours. When Mr.
Gardiner writes that Wickham has an officer's commission in the
north of England, Mrs. Bennet alone regrets that the couple will be
living so far away.
Contemplating her sister's marriage, Elizabeth reflects that
her wishes for a future with Darcy are completely hopeless now.
Even if he would marry into a family as embarrassing as the
Bennets, he would never willingly marry into a family of which
Wickham is a part. This thought saddens her, for she realizes at
last how perfectly matched she and Darcy would have been.
In chapter 51 to 55, soon after Lydia and Wickham marry,
they arrive at Longbourn. Much to Elizabeth and Jane's
embarrassment and Mr. Bennet's outrage, the couple acts
completel y self -assured and unashamed. In observing the couple,
Elizabeth notes that Lydia seems to be more in love with Wickham
than he is with her, and she surmises that Wickham fled Brighton
mainly because of gambling debts, taking Lydia along because she
was willing. Unimpressed by Wickham's still -charming manners,
Elizabeth politely informs him that she is aware of his past but
wants to have an amiable relationship with him.
One morning, Lydia mentions that Darcy was present at her
wedding. Intensely curio us about Darcy's involvement in her sister's
marriage, Elizabeth writes to her aunt to demand more information.
Mrs. Gardiner quickly replies, explaining that it was Darcy, not Mr.
Gardiner, who found Lydia and Wickham, and he persuaded
Wickham to marry Ly dia with a substantial wedding settlement —
Darcy paid all of Wickham's debts and bought him a commission in
the army. Mrs. Gardiner implies that Darcy was motivated not only
by a sense of responsibility but also out of love for Elizabeth.
Elizabeth wants to believe her aunt's supposition, but she questions
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Mrs. Bennet laments Lydia and Wickham's departure, but
the news that Bingley is returning to Netherfield Hall soon shifts her
attention to Jane. W hile Jane claims to be unaffected by Bingley's
arrival, Elizabeth is certain that her sister still has feelings for him.
When Bingley visits Longbourn, Elizabeth is surprised and excited
to see that Darcy has accompanied him. He is once more grave
and rese rved, though, which troubles her. Making Elizabeth more
uncomfortable is her mother's rude treatment of Darcy, especially
when she reflects upon how much Darcy has secretly helped the
Bennet family.
Darcy goes to London and Bingley continues to visit the
Bennets. He and Jane grow closer, and much to everyone's delight,
he finally proposes.
In the concluding chapter 56 to 61, Lady Catherine De
Bourgh unexpectedly drops by Longbourn one day to talk to
Elizabeth. She has heard a rumour that Darcy and Elizabe th are or
are about to be engaged and is determined to stop any romance
that may exist between them. Declaring that Darcy and Miss De
Bourgh have been intended for each other since they were born,
Lady Catherine tells Elizabeth that the match between her n ephew
and daughter will not be ruined by "a young woman of inferior birth,
of no importance in the world, and wholly unallied to the family."
Despite Lady Catherine's demands, Elizabeth refuses to be
intimidated and she fuels Lady Catherine's outrage by re fusing to
promise never to accept a proposal from Darcy. Lady Catherine
leaves angrily, threatening to approach Darcy on the matter.
Shaken by the confrontation, Elizabeth wonders how Darcy will
react to his aunt's denunciation of her. She decides that if Darcy
does not return to Netherfield, she will know that he has submitted
to his aunt's wishes.
The next morning, Mr. Bennet asks Elizabeth into his library,
where he shares a letter with her that he received from Mr. Collins.
In it, Mr. Collins also addr esses the rumoured engagement
between Elizabeth and Darcy and warns his cousin against it,
stating that Lady Catherine does not approve. Mr. Bennet finds the
idea of Elizabeth being engaged to Darcy ludicrous and tries to get
Elizabeth to laugh with him ov er the situation, while Elizabeth
miserably listens and tries to think of something to say.
Several days later, contrary to Elizabeth's expectations,
Darcy comes to Longbourn with Bingley. She and Darcy go for a
walk and Elizabeth blurts out her thanks fo rh i si n v o l v e m e n ti n
Lydia and Wickham's marriage. In turn, Darcy declares that he still
loves Elizabeth and wants to marry her. When Elizabeth responds
that her feelings have greatly changed and that she also loves him,
Darcy is delighted and the two happ ily discuss the history of their
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proposal caused him to examine his pride and prejudices and to
subsequently alter his behaviour. They also discuss Bingley and
Jane. Darcy is happy about the ir engagement, and he admits to
encouraging Bingley to propose.
Darcy and Elizabeth's engagement is so unexpected that the
Bennet family has difficulty believing it at first. Elizabeth's criticisms
of Darcy were initially so strong that no one except the Gardiners
had any idea of the change in her feelings for him. After the family
is convinced, however, everyone's reactions are characteristic.
Jane is genuinely happy for her sister, and Mrs. Bennet is thrilled at
the prospect of Darcy's wealth. Mr. Bennet is saddened that his
favourite daughter will be leaving, but he is happy to discover that
Darcy paid off Wickham rather than Mr. Gardiner, feeling that,
because a family member did not pay the debt, Mr. Bennet is
released from his obligation to pay the mo ney back.
After the marriages of Elizabeth and Darcy and Jane and
Bingley, life progresses happily for the newly weds. The Bingleys
move close to Pemberley after about a year, and Elizabeth and
Jane are frequently visited by their sister Kitty, who improv es
considerably under their influence. Back at Longbourn, Mrs. Bennet
continues to be silly, Mr. Bennet misses Elizabeth and enjoys
visiting her, and Mary appreciates having no pretty sisters at home
to compete with. As for the rest of their families, Wick ham and
Lydia continue to squander money, Lady Catherine is cold to
Elizabeth, and Miss Darcy and Elizabeth become very close. Darcy
and Elizabeth's happiness is increased by visits from the Gardiners,
whom Darcy and Elizabeth feel are responsible for brin ging them
together.
(Note: The summary of the Pride and Prejudice is adapted
from - https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/p/pride -and-
prejudice/summary -and-analysis/chapters -5661 -volume -iii-
1420 accessed on 23rd May 2018.)
6.3 THEMES
6.3.1 Love and Marriage:
In this section we discuss the topics of love and marriage in
Pride and Prejudice in connection. The topic of love is one of the
main topics in Pride and Prejudice and the reason why Jane Austen
is sometimes called a Romantic writer. Yet the introductory
sentence in Austen’s Pride and Prejudice “It is a truth universally
acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune
must be in want of a wife.” shows us clearly the situation of rich
young men and ladies at the contemporary time. Most of the
relationships in the novel are influenced by either social position or
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determined by the social position and the financial situation is seen
through the story and it is enormously influencing the development
of the story and possible ‘connections’. One of the potential
marriages in the story between Elizabeth and Mr. Collins mirror the
necessity to get married in order to be financially secured as Mr.
Collins is about to inherit all of Mr. Bennet’s possessions as Mr.
Bennet has no direct male descendant and women had no right to
inherit a fortune. In the story, th is fact is emphasized by Mr. Bennet:
“my cousin, Mr. Collins, who, when I am dead, may turn you all out
of this house as soon as he pleases”; shortly after is Mr. Collins
blamed for “a most iniquitous affair” and that “nothing can clear Mr.
Collins from th e guilt of inheriting Longbourn”. Austen found herself
in a very similar situation, when she rejected marriage in order not
to financially secure herself. A significance of chance in the context
of marriage and connected social position is obvious, neverth eless,
an “ideal choice” is “a rare occurrence in her novels”. Nevertheless,
each couple lives through either happy or unhappy love, both in its
very extremes, so typical for the Romantic period. Yet the first one
couple we meet in the story, Mr and Mrs Be nnet, are actually the
‘unhappy’ ones. The relationship exists only outside, not having
something in common. Their characters are clearly described at the
beginning of the novel:
“Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic
humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three -and -
twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his
character. Her mind was less difficult to develop. She was a woman
of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper.
When she was discontented, she fancied herself nervous. The
business of her life was to get her daughters married; its solace
was visiting and news.”
This couple is a perfect example of a result of arranged
marriages, very frequent at those times. Gibbs describes these
marriages as “fruitless”, “foreign” or “loveless”. Mr. Bennet, being
the most ironical character in the story, treats his wife in a very
funny way without her realizing it: “You and the girls may go, or you
may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for
as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley may like you
the best of the party.”. Although their seemingly unhappy marriage,
they managed to bring up daughters together despite their
differences and learned to live next to each other with toleration.
This type of marriage was very likely to happen and could be called
‘mechanical’ as there was no love match.
In Pride and Prejudice a hierarchy marriage is present; being
what Weinsheimer claims that “each couple seems to be y oked
because both partners achieve the same moral rank, and thus are
fit mates”. Unfortunately, this is not only the case of morality, but
also a rank of an intellectual matureness. Through the story,munotes.in

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couples get together not only thanks to liking each oth er, but above
all to similar acting.
The exception is Charlotte and Mr. Collins’ marriage that
demonstrates a complete truckling to social claims. According to
Marcus, they present “a complete abandonment of personal claims
in favour of social claims, but their individual adjustments are
distinctly different”. For Mr. Collins, it is Lady Catherine, thanks to
which he decides to find a wife so as to set a social example and
fulfil her wishes. For Charlotte, it is the only alternative and despite
the fact of the lack of love affection she takes the chance to get
married. She ‘sacrificed’ her possibly good future to have a
husband, that has nothing to lose and is not much interested in who
his wife is. It is her choice that determines the relationship and
yields to the social concept of courtship. Austen created a pathetic
marriage full of irony and opposites. By ‘connecting’ these two
characters, so different by nature and opinions from each other,
there originated an ironical marriage in order to fulfil the s ociety’s
demands and pretending to be ‘a happy’ one. The wispy and foolish
Mr. Collins even tries to convince himself of him and Charlotte to be
a perfect match: “My dear Charlotte and I have but one mind and
one way of thinking. There is in everything a m ost remarkable
resemblance of character and ideas between us. We seem to have
been designed for each other.” Through Charlotte’s character, we
are witnesses of what Marcus determines to be “the process of
capitulation of social claims”, when she is ‘manipu lated’ by the
claims and her characteristic such as intelligence and integrity
emphasized by Austen is simultaneously pushed aside. On the
other hand, “Collins has lost nothing by the marriage because he
had nothing to lose”, so it is quite possible that w hen not Charlotte,
it would be another ‘desperate’ young lady to accept marrying him.
A good example of the ‘same moral rank’ relationship is
Wickham and Lydia, both being controlled by their sexual passion
and intellectual immaturity. Their marriage is e ven more
gregariously ‘demanded’ for their spontaneous runaway causing
Bennet’s family the highest degree of disgrace. It is again a
‘collective fault’, not being an individual that determines this
relationship to become a marriage. Lydia is playing only a no b j e c t
in the game of revengeful and untruthful Wickham that leads to her
personal ‘catastrophe’; luckily, thanks to her nature, she considers
it to be a happy ending as it means for her seeking “freedom and
excitement”. Austen demonstrates to us the con sequences leading
from the connection of two characters, one as an authentic
representation of social claims and second craving for revenge
unaware of the plausible accomplishments.
Bingley and Jane, for their similar qualities and general
“immobility”, t he inability to express their feelings and wishes,
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and by what she dramatized the whole story. Both lacking the self -
confidence, Mr. Bingley happens to be unable to defend his
feelings and in terests in Jane under the pressure of his very best
friend Mr. Darcy who keeps convincing him about the inadvisability
of such marriage. On the other hand, Jane’s quickness to believe
that Mr. Bingley suddenly lost interest in her expresses her “inability
to assert personal claims”; Austen opens the question of Jane’s
good -hearted behaviour and lets us decide whether it’s because of
Jane’s naivety or that she is dumb and lets herself ‘break’ so easily.
In every aspect, this relationship is what Jane Austen desired for as
they were literally ‘made for each other’ –both by being good -
looking and having similar behaviour. Nevertheless, both of them
also are not individualists making the story complicated and hard to
reach the ‘happy ending’.
There are also a reas connected to love and emotions
Austen does not mention in the novel. What Pride and Prejudice
lacks first is the fantasy in the love matter. In many situations in the
story we meet a person that is in love and struggles, but not a
single thought about the person is apparent. This causes an effect
of a realistic view, being an opposite of the Romantic one. It is
sexual passion and attractiveness we do not see in the story.
Nevertheless, Casal suggests laughter to be a substitution of the
sexual tensions as it “many of Austen’s contemporaries saw … as
vulgar”. On the other hand, Allen believes that “[character’s] mutual
attraction is metonymically displaced … [by] proposals to dance,
glances and walks.”
A question comes to every mind when studying Austen ’s life,
why does she provide a husband to her heroines, when she herself
remained unmarried? She apparently sympathizes with Elizabeth
she is the heroine and “the most authentically powerful figure in the
novel” supporting the individualism both in her na ture and love
matter, it was the “individualism that had ties to the French and the
Industrial Revolutions”.
The issue of love and marriage is therefore very important in
investigating Austen’s observation of relationships in her own
environment. It is ve ry likely that she was to some extent inspired
by her relatives or social events. Every relationship in the story has
a contrast; either they are ‘successful’ or ‘unsuccessful’ being
Romantic features. What Austen creates is the game of couples
and courtsh ip, which reflects the importance of having relationship
or someone sharing life with; the never -ending ‘husband -chasing’
is an expression of the necessity to get married in order to become
a ‘complete’ human -being. The only obstacles are the featu res of
individualism and lack of self -confidence, even if individualism is a
key feature of Romanticism; it has to be broken in order to fulfill the
society’s demands, so important for the upcoming Victorians. In
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of imagination contributes to the fact of the ‘prudishness’ and high
degree of morality in Pride and Prejudice that is core for Victorian
Era.
6.3.2 Money:
Money plays a central role to the plot of Pride and Prejudice.
Because of the entail, the Bennet women will have a bleak financial
future after Mr. Bennet dies. When readers recognize this, Mrs.
Bennet's pursuit of husbands for her daughters takes on a sense of
urgency that supersedes her foolish behaviour. Translatin gt h e
monetary realities that the characters of Pride and Prejudice face
into modern equivalents helps readers to better understand the
characters' motivations and the significance of their actions.
Austen describes people's financial situations throughou t
Pride and Prejudice in terms of actual monetary amounts. Darcy is
not simply rich; he has 10,000 pounds a year. When Elizabeth's
father dies, she will not only be poor, she will have a mere 40
pounds a year. But what do these figures mean in modern U.S.
dollars? Critic Edward Copeland has calculated the value of one
pound in Austen's day to be roughly equivalent to 80 dollars now.
While he emphasizes that his estimate is not scientific and is
probably conservative, such an equivalency helps to put the sum s
Austen scatters throughout the novel into perspective.
According to Austen, Mr. Bennet's annual income is 2,000
pounds, or 160,000 dollars. Compare that to Darcy's 10,000
pounds or 800,000 dollars. Additionally, the sums Austen gives are
often discussed in terms of 4 or 5 percents. These percents refer to
the fact that the income the landed gentry earned came from
investing their money in secure government bonds. Therefore,
Bingley is described as having "four or five thousand a year"
because Mrs. Bennet is not sure of what his 100,000 pound
inheritance is earning. Similarly, Mr. Collins assumes the lesser
amount when he condescendingly informs Elizabeth that he will not
reproach her for bringing only "one thousand pounds in the 4 per
cents" to their marr iage. In other words, Elizabeth will only have a
40 or 50 pound annual income to live off after her father dies, which
translates into 3,200 or 4,000 dollars.
This comparison of Austen's pound with the modern dollar
not only clarifies characters' annual i ncomes, but also exposes the
magnitude of certain financial transactions, such as Darcy's
dealings with Wickham. First, Wickham inherited 1,000 pounds, or
80,000 dollars from Darcy's father. After dissolving his claim to the
clergyman position, Wickham rec eived 3,000 more pounds
(240,000 dollars) from Darcy. Within three years, he was again
asking Darcy for money, which Darcy refused to give him. Wickham
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30,000 pounds (2.4 million dollars). Wi ckham then runs off with
Lydia, whose portion equals Elizabeth's —40 pounds a year, 1,000
pounds overall. He tells Darcy that he has no intention of marrying
Lydia and still plans to marry an heiress. To persuade Wickham to
marry Lydia, Darcy must then pa y Wickham's debts, totalling 1,000
pounds, or 80,000 dollars in addition to buying his commission at
about 450 pounds or 36,000 dollars. Mr.Bennet also conjectures
that "Wickham's a fool if he takes her for less than ten thousand
pounds," meaning that Darc y probably also paid Wickham an
additional 800,000 dollars. Elizabeth's overwhelming gratitude
toward Darcy and the debt of her family to him become much
clearer in light of these figures in U.S. dollars.
6.3.3 Class :
Class is different from pride and pr ejudice as this is not a
personal quality, but more a background which colours Mr. Darcy’s
perception of society and limits his personal freedom. Even though
Mr. Darcy struggles with his pride and prejudice, it is the difference
of social rank that becomes the most difficult challenge. In the end,
when he overcomes this he is at last able to be with Elizabeth. This
section will examine three instances in the novel where class plays
an important role. The first example is Mr. Darcy’s first proposal to
Elizab eth. It is an example of his inner struggle between his
individuality and his position inherited through birth. The second
example will take a closer look at Mr. Darcy’s social background
and family in order to understand his improper conduct. The third
and final example is Mr. Darcy’s second proposal. This example is
in line with his internal change and symbolizes his development into
the perfect gentleman.
In his first proposal to Elizabeth, she turns him down,
because Mr. Darcy has been the cause of her sister Jane’s
unhappiness. Elizabeth still believes Wickham to be the innocent
and Darcy to be the brute; his address to her is proud and rude. Mr.
Darcy’s proposal is evidence of his inner struggle between his
individuality and his pride inherited throug hb i r t h .
‘In vain have I struggled. It will not do. My feelings will not be
repressed. You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and
love you’. Unconcerned with Elizabeth’s feelings and pride, he
insults her and her family before making the prop osal. He does not
consider that Elizabeth might find it hurtful to listen to how he has
tried in vain to fight the feelings of love towards her because she
and her family are not good enough for him. At last he finds himself
defeated and reluctantly propos es to her. Elizabeth explains her
feelings to him and how he has hurt her. Mr. Darcy cannot
understand this reaction; he expected a humbled and overjoyed girl
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When was there a period, since this country became
civilized, in which the nobleness of love was so little known as at
the present, in which the passion itself was so much a stranger
among the upper ranks of life, in which marriage was so avowedly
am a t t e ro ft r a f f i ct h r o u g ha l m o s te v e r y class of society, or the
feelings of the heart so seldom consulted by either sex?
This is an example of how the upper class had manipulated
the common morals of everyday life into something that had to do
with class and money. Marriage was not based on l ove, but rather
on what would make good family connections and how much
money would be added to the family fortune. One of the characters
in Pride and Prejudice who represents these typical ideas is Mr.
Darcy’s aristocratic aunt Lady Catherine de Bourgh. I no r d e rt o
discuss Mr. Darcy’s improper behaviour, it is necessary to
emphasize his family and his upbringing.
Lady Catherine de Bourgh is Darcy’s aunt and also the
family member that Darcy is most likely to have inherited his pride
from. Catherine de Bou rgh belongs to the upper class, the
aristocracy and is a woman. Today one would expect that she
might feel some sort of empathy or compassion towards Elizabeth,
as they belong to the same gender. However, as is the case in
most of Austen’s works, strong wo men from the upper class are in
fact the strongest upholders of the unfair conduct rules which are
perhaps most strict on women.
He explained that he was marrying beneath him and had to
sacrifice his good name and honour by doing so. Catherine de
Bourgh s imilarly tries to frighten Elizabeth out of the engagement
by claiming that Elizabeth has no sense thinking she can marry Mr.
Darcy and bring dishonour to the Darcy family name. Catherine de
Bourgh believes Elizabeth has lured Mr. Darcy into a marriage
because of the money. ‘The upstart pretentions of a young woman
without family, connections, or future. (…) If you were sensible of
your own good, you would not wish to quit the sphere, in which you
have been brought up’.
Elizabeth replies that she is in fac tag e n t l e m a n ’ sd a u g h t e r
and would indeed not quit her sphere as she already belongs to the
same sphere as Mr. Darcy. This is true, and consequently Mr.
Darcy does not marry beneath him. However, as Catherine points
out, it is not her social rank that nece ssarily makes her an
undesirable connection, but her mother and that side of the family.
Her mother was not a gentleman’s daughter, so Elizabeth’s father
has similarly, but not completely, done what Darcy wants to do.
Mrs. Bennet’s brother is a merchant an d lives in Cheap side in
London. Cheap side was a neighbourhood in London’s commercial
district. To live near one’s place of business rather than in more
fashionable precincts was considered improper. Mrs. Bennet’s
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inferior to living off one’s land as Mr. Darcy and Mr. Bingley do,
leading to the Bennet family being considered as having low
connections.
In addition, Mrs. Bennet is hysterical in her search for a
suitable -meaning rich -husband for her girls and thus contributes
to their already established bad reputation among the upper class.
It is, however, interesting, considering Catherine de Bourgh’s
strong objections towards Mrs. Bennet’s side of the family, how well
Mr. Darcy gets along with the Gardiners. When Elizabeth
introduces Mr. Darcy to the Gardiners (…) she stole a sly look at
him, to see how he bore it; and was not without the expectation of
his decamping as fast as he could from such disgraceful
companions.
However, it is perhaps necessary to raise the question of
how Mr. Bingley came by his wealth. The only evidence of how he
has made his fortune is when the Bennet family discusses his
arrival to Meryton and Netherfield. ‘Netherfield is taken by a young
man of large fortune from t he north of England’. The north of
England was an industrial area and Mr. Bingley would likely have
made his fortune from trade or similar occupations which would
characterize him as ‘new money’. It is interesting that the Bennet
family is strictly speakin g living off their land, in line with the social
or aristocratic norms concerning honourable ways of income.
However, they are not thought of as good connections since Mrs.
Bennet’s side of the family, the Gardiners, is connected to trade
and the merchant class. Mr. Bingley too is connected to the
merchant class, but it is important to point out that, contrary to the
Gardiners, Mr. Bingley is respected and accepted by Mr. Darcy.
The difference between Mr Bingley and the Gardiners is that Mr.
Bingley now liv es off his income undoubtedly made through trade
and commerce, while the Gardiners still work and does not live off
their income. To work and talk about money was considered
improper and low.
Mr. Bingley would most likely not have been willingly
accepted by the aristocratic upper class, since all money made
through work, meaning not inherited, was considered ‘new money’.
Mr. Darcy is clearly friends with Mr. Bingley, even though he
considers the Gardiners low connection, when they and Mr. Bingley
belong to the same social class and work. Compared, then, to the
strict system of social norms important to the aristocratic upper
class, Mr. Darcy's friendship with Mr. Bingley is a quite rebellious
act, considering how unpopular this would be among his more
power ful connections within the aristocratic class.
This friendship existed before Mr. Darcy met Elizabeth which
resulted in his internal change. This liberal attitude is not consistent
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characte ristics apparent in Mr. Darcy’s personality points out from
the very beginning some social norms Austen felt were too old -
fashioned and outdated. However, Austen also portrays how
limitations and liberties varied concerning what gender one
belonged too. Mr . Darcy takes some liberties when it comes to his
choice in friends that most likely would have been improper and
impossible for women. Mr. Darcy chooses to ignore Mr. Bingley’s
less socially accepted way of making his fortune because he likes
Mr. Bingley.
Making Mr. Darcy friends first with Bingley, then with the
Gardiners, was a part of Austen’s plan. It had to be Mr. Darcy that
made it socially acceptable to be friends with people who previously
would have been considered a low connection. He is from th e
upper class, smart, handsome and rich. A character people would
idolize and strive to imitate.
Mr. Darcy changes after Elizabeth’s speech and her refusal
of his proposal. Elizabeth pointed out all his errors and conversely
he pointed out hers; however, after defending himself against the
false accusations made against him in the case of Wickham, he
must have had an eye -opener. He has not stopped thinking of
Elizabeth and probably recognizes himself in some of the
accusations. He recognizes that he has been acting proudly and
unjustly towards her and her family. He has judged her on the basis
of socially constructed conduct rules that have been coloured by
the upper class’ unwillingness to let people from other, more
uncertain families ‘in’. Mr. Darcy br eaks conduct rules in order to be
with Elizabeth.
The events that lead to Mr. Darcy’s second proposal to
Elizabeth are many. When they meet after his first proposal they
have both had time to think through the events that took place.
Elizabeth, for her pa rt, has realized that she has been misled by
Wickham and that she has treated Mr. Darcy wrongly. She is
embarrassed at how she had prided herself on being able to
perceive and judge people justly. After she realizes that she has
completely misinterpreted t he situation and followed her prejudices
in trusting Wickham instead of Mr. Darcy, she is humbled. The fact
that Mr. Darcy helped her family, leading to Mr. Wickham and
Lydia’s marriage, is the last piece that convinces Elizabeth of Mr.
Darcy’s true charac ter.
Elizabeth and -more importantly -Mr. Darcy have freed
themselves from their social class, by gaining self -knowledge and
self -reflexivity, that they find each other and let go of the their
pride and prejudice. Mr. Darcy does not ride in as a whi te knight in
shining armour, liberating women from the patriarchal chains of
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have been too strong a message and would not have turned the
novel into the popular work it was and still is.
Even though the two protagonists are strong individuals, it is
necessary to emphasize that Austen did not intend to make the two
break out of society. Jane Austen thought individualism important in
the sense that people needed to distance themselves from the
negative ‘fences’ that society created, such as class, rank and
fortune. She demonstrates through the characters of Elizabeth and
Mr. Darcy how class should not have an influence on how people
perceive one another. Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy judge one ano ther
due to the prejudice created by society in terms of class
differences. However, after they both realize that their first
impressions of each other are mistaken, they fall in love and marry.
When they marry, they become a part of society, but they choo se to
be a part of it on their own terms.
The unity they create by their marriage is an example of how
Austen could criticize the rules of conduct concerning class.
Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy’s marriage shows how Austen wanted
society to be. They become a pa rt of society and create an ideal of
the perfect marriage based on respect for individuality and
personality, rather than class, rank and fortune.
6.3.4 Gender:
Gender role in Pride and Prejudice is one of the most
important features and is an important p art as we try to reveal
Austen’s uniqueness by investigating some of the characters in the
novel and assigning their role according to their gender. Jane
Austen’s heroines are all young girls at the outset of adult life. “All
of Austen’s heroines possess t he capacity for entering into the
feelings of other, which often distinguishes them from other, less
empathic characters.” A good example is Elizabeth Bennet in Pride
and Prejudice, growing up through the story from a girl into a
woman. As the narrator of ten identifies with the heroine, it is clear
that Elizabeth’s character is partially autobiographical. That Austen
sympathizes and unites herself with the character of Elizabeth is
apparent, when she writes about her to her sister: “Miss Benn really
seems to admire Elizabeth. I must confess that I think her as
delightful a creature as ever appeared in print. And how shall I be
able to tolerate those who do not like her, at least I do not know.”
Projecting one’s own personality “into thoughts and feelings of
others and remain open to a variety of points of view” is “a key
element in the creative process and an important characteristic of
the creative individual” called “Negative Capability”. Only this
individual, in Pride and Prejudice Elizabeth Bennet, is ca pable of
such acting by admitting her own fault and being ashamed for
judging the others within the limits of her mind, that was determined
to prejudice without her even realizing it. The reader starts admiring
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same time. The act of opening one’s mind is unique for Jane
Austen and for making the character complex. When she chooses
love instead of material security by rejecting Mr. Collins, she
“pushes against early nineteenth -century stan dards regarding
women’s limited choices by rejecting the pompous clergyman.”
Austen herself once rejected a marriage proposal for the same
reasons as Elizabeth did. The ability to reject a man she could not
respect comes from Austen’s social belief. This f act reflects the
author’s opinion and attitude to the contemporary problematics and
clearly shows us visible parallels between Jane Austen and
Elizabeth by “confronting society’s overbearing claims” through
which she tries to influence the reader. When we consider
situations Elizabeth often occurs in, these are balls, visits or other
engagements with the gentry, the author is visibly aware of all the
situations and its’ process. “Elizabeth is more likely to be verbally
aggressive with Mr. Darcy, Mr. Bingley ,o rL a d yC a t h e r i n et h a nw i t h
intimate female friends.”. The irreverent way Elizabeth
communicated with people of a ‘higher social status’ is determined
by her prejudice of rich people, most of which she considers
priggish and excessively proud. That expla ins Austen’s personal
attitude and the impertinence displays the independence and
disagreement with the social cliché of the duty to be nice and
servile to people being ‘higher’ on the social ladder. Her
independent thinking is unique as she decided to bre ak the ‘rules’
“rather than being part of a collective response to a social
situation.”. Elizabeth plays an important role pushing the social
standards to the back and emphasizing the importance of common
sense rather than dogma and position in society. Wi tty as she is,
Austen created a new type of heroine that happens to be an ideal
for women of the past, present and possibly future as well.
An example of a capricious, envious and eager woman is
Mrs. Bennet. She represents the female as the only thing to ever
reach is to get married and to be financially secure. Getting easily
distracted, keeping speculating and expressing her feelings and
opinions in an inappropriate way, she becomes an annoying
character full of prejudice. Corresponding to social standar ds, she
has no common sense and ridicules the whole system.
On the other hand, her eldest daughter Jane, admired for
her beauty and distinguished by artlessness, serves us as an
example of a pure soul. She is the only character in the story not
trying to judge in advance and keeping her emotions inside. Taking
all compliments by surprise, Jane seems unaware of her beauty.
Although everyone around is prejudiced, she never says a negative
word. Whether it comes from the passivity or innocence is hard to
determine, most likely is the combination of both. Jane, aged 23, is
ridiculed for being a spinster at such an age by Lydia. She is an
archetype of beauty in the story connected with her shy nature,
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hope, not only in the search for a husband, but a well -balanced soul
able to wait.
A foolish, spontaneous and very young lady Lydia and the
youngest daughter of Mr. Bennet, turns up through the story very
confident and unaware of results of her behaviour. "I am not afraid;
for though I am the youngest, I'm the tallest." (Austen 6). The same
as Mrs. Bennet, she ridicules herself all the time by the desire for
men and excitement.
How Austen makes from a common character an
extraordinary one is mir aculous. Her ironical notes on the
happening on the scene make the reader feel the atmosphere and
guess the right temper of the speaker. Mary represents a type of
girl not being ready for life, hiding her character underneath books,
playing piano, likely n ever getting married and therefore becoming
a remaining part of the puzzle of the characters in the story. She
can be considered partly an autobiographical character, as Austen
remained unmarried and was an accomplished musician.
Charlotte Lucas, at the b eginning of the story the eldest
unmarried woman, suffers by her age, making her at the age of 27
too old to be proposed and to get married to. She has many fine
qualities for being intelligent, sensible and loyal; for these being the
best friend of Elizab eth. The importance of marriage in order to be
financially secure is demonstrated by her character vastly, causing
her to become financially secured, but still an unhappy woman. In a
wider and feministic sense, she can be considered a prisoner in the
syste m Jane Austen created and that agreed with the
contemporary political system. She is a counter character to
Elizabeth Bennet, where the standards and values of society were
demonstrated by fulfilling them and which shows us the result of
what could have ha ppened if Elizabeth had married Mr. Collins.
Men, same as women in the story, are diverse. Compared to
women’s ones, male friendships are not so developed because
“they have no adequately developed same -sex relationships or
correspondences through which their power can be realized”
causing minimization of men’s power in society. The social
problems that influence the life of women are not so visible in the
life of a man.
For Mr. Bennet is a character full of irony, his role being that
of a breadwinner a nd father of five daughters, taking care of his
small country estate, is to be discussed in one of the following
chapters called ‘Irony’.
Mr. Darcy, admired for his possessions, but hated by the
major part of the Pride and Prejudice society for his pride, is the
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character that is somehow hiding his true nature behind the face of
a very proud, rough and contemptuous face. Initially, he is admired
for both his position and fortune, but shortly afterwa rds, when he is
seen publicly, hated for the same thing. By Elizabeth’s character,
we get to know him through the story and reveal his true character,
being brave, grateful and honest. The importance of money is
obvious by the fact that it can justify his outer ‘misbehaviour’, when
Mrs. Lucas claims that “One cannot wonder that so very fine a
young man, with family, fortune, everything in his favour, should
think highly of himself. If I may so express it, he has a right to be
proud.“ (Austen 12). As a lover , Darcy is faithful, shy and steady in
his feelings, but skilled in hiding his affections towards Elizabeth.
He is a very moral character, being in many moral contradictions
and decisions through the story, all of which he manages to get
under control. Thi s character of proud and none the less shy Darcy
defines and represents Austen’s vision of a perfect man for being
extraordinary; unfortunately, she found them only in her novels”.
She created a type of a man she desired for in her real life with all
the q ualities she expected him to have. Mr. Darcy is a gentleman
that despite his outer behaviour deserves both his fortune and
Elizabeth’s love; he plays a role of a faithful lover and also a
sensible man with power.
A relationship, although not as deep as th eo n eb e t w e e n
Elizabeth and Jane, is the one between Bingley and Darcy. Even
though they are not related, they respect and treat each other as
brothers. Their different natures secure their balanced relationship.
Nevertheless, Mr. Darcy is, indeed, a stron ger personality. He
possesses the ability of manipulating with his best friend Mr.
Bingley by changing his opinions as Bingley is hesitating all the
time. Mr. Darcy uses this skill to protect his best friend from being
hurt and therefore plays the superior role in this relationship.
Mr. Bingley can be considered as a male version of Jane
that differs only by a higher position on the social ladder and better
financial situation; what Austen makes us think about, is that these
two characters are same persona lities, but that the role of their
gender and also position directs their fate and lives completely. His
qualities are undoubtedly comparable to these of Jane, as they
both are beautiful, kind and generally nice and gentle to everyone.
One characteristic t hat they share is their hesitance, in the case of
Bingley even more visible as men are in charge of disposing the
property. By this quality is he subtly manipulated and often not able
to express his own opinions and wishes properly. His character
shows us the exception that even men that should be ‘ruling’ over
women in Pride and Prejudice, are limited not only by their social
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6.4 STYLE OF THE NOVEL
Jane Austen's P ride and Prejudice exploits the merger of
narrative voice and discourse (telling and showing), to successfully
construct the perception of a social world occupied by a range of
characters.
The novel is written in the third -person narration, where the
narrator is not a real character in the story world (such as in first -
person narration), but a separate individual. In Pride and Prejudice
the narrator is also an omniscient, who allows readers to penetrate
a particular character's psyche and informs them of t he latter’s
actions from the narrator’s own perspective.
A typical elucidation of Austen’s skilful conduct of narrative
voice in Pride and Prejudice is that the basic features of her
narrative technique exist in the tradition of epistolary narrative. For
example, almost a century before Austen first drafted her novel in
the 1790s, Aphra Behn, in her Love -Letters Between a Nobleman
and His Sister (1684 –7), used fictional letters to offer direct entrée
to the consciousness of her characters. Moreover, we have other
classic eighteenth -century examples of this style in the works of
Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740), Frances Burney’s Evelina
(1778) and Laclos’s Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) (Wright,
2010).
At the beginning of Pride and Prejudice, the omniscient
narrator is temporarily silent, while the two major characters
(Elizabeth Bennet and Mr Darcy) move forward to express the story
in their own words. This can be interpreted as a key procedure of
representing, known as direct speech or dialogue a nd is defined by
a critic as “the actual words and grammatical structures which the
character used in the original utterance, not those of the narrator”.
Hence, it is believed that this style of writing is adequate for
producing a sense of closeness betwee n the characters and the
reader, the dialogue being employed to effectively present
conflicting opinions. A case in point is the situation where the
reader can differentiate the dissimilar views between Elizabeth and
Darcy on poetry. Such dissimilarities b etween characters resemble
the dialogic theory of Mikhail Bakhtin, who claims that language is
primarily a dialogue of clashing voices and the practice of direct
speech in fiction is a process of artistically composing these voices.
The regular use of dia logue in Pride and Prejudice would
probably bring forth the topic of veracity. The reliability of
Elizabeth's discourse is reinforced when the narrator does not use
a separate narrative voice to delineate the character's thoughts, but
focuses on the events through her. Consequently, we can observe
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narrator’s voice, or, in other words, that Elizabeth is the character
that the narrator takes the view of most often, stepping out of her
traditiona l role as narrator and assuming Elizabeth’s “personality”,
putting herself under Elizabeth’s skin. This style functions as a
means of evoking the reader’s sympathy for Elizabeth (as against
presuming a situation of ironic objectivity) a feature which is
typically found in Austen's writing.
On the other hand, the narrative viewpoint possibly moves
away from Elizabeth when readers encounter the use of indirect
speech; “The words of indirect speech usually belong to the
narrator”. The difference between direc t speech (DS) and indirect
speech (IS) is that DS shows the exact words a character utters,
enclosed in inverted commas, while in IS the narrator reports the
topic of what was said, using his/her own words.
The last narrative technique which is used perva sively in
Pride and Prejudice is free indirect discourse. It combines two types
of representation of a character’s utterances and thoughts, free
indirect speech and free indirect thought, which is a conspicuous
way of catching the idiosyncratic qualities o f a character’s speech
and thought in narrative fiction.
6.5 SYMBOLS USED
Jane Austen does not typically use much in the way of
symbolism, but there are a couple of important images in this novel.
Pemberley:
As I mentioned in the themes above, the visi tt oP e m b e r l e y
is a pivotal moment in the Elizabeth -Darcy relationship. While
visiting, Elizabeth learns that he is a kind master to his servants
and is solicitous for the well -being of his little sister. He keeps his
estate well -maintained and is obviousl y a dutiful and responsible
guardian of his familial property. This speaks well of his principles.
Pemberley is therefore a symbol of both Mr. Darcy's good character
and of Elizabeth's burgeoning love for him.
The Outdoors:
It sounds like an obvious point , but the outdoors serves as a
symbol of freedom for Elizabeth. She loves walking and garden
pathways in particular serve as motifs of Elizabeth's feelings of
personal peace. She rejoices when a pathway in Netherfield's
garden is not wide enough to allow h er to walk with Mr. Darcy and
Caroline Bingley, preferring to ramble around by herself instead.
She also feels imposed upon when Mr. Darcy discovers her
favourite walking path at Hunsford / Rosings. It is therefore
significant that she allows him to fall i nto step beside her on one of
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comfortably side -by-side at Pemberley is a representation of their
harmonious marriage. It cannot be an accident that Mr. Darcy's
second proposal takes place outside and Elizabeth finally accepts
him.
Houses:
Throughout Pride and Prejudice, Austen pays particular
attention to the manner and style of many of the characters' homes
or estates. A small -scale home like the Bennets' is presented as a
suitable, if modest, dw elling place in which to raise five daughters.
Though it's somewhat plain, it's still respectable. In contrast, larger
manors like Bingley's at Netherfield Park, Lady Catherine's estate
of Rosings, or Darcy's palatial home of Pemberley are showcases
for th eir owner's enormous wealth and are conspicuous symbols of
social prestige. Elizabeth's reaction on first seeing Pemberley and
her imagining how it would be to live there illustrate that even her
calm, cool sense of detachment is awed by the beauty and siz eo f
the estate. In a way, houses and estates function as the outward
signs of their owner's inward character. They carry an almost
spiritual significance. Rosings may be grand, but it does not
possess the tasteful elegance of Pemberley. Elizabeth's elevat ion
from Longbourn to Pemberley marks not only a rise in her social
position, but an advance in her moral growth as well.
6.6POINTS TO REMEMBER
Each chapter has unique story entangled with the succeeding
chapters
Language is simple and Victorian in expression
Style is in third person
The theme of love, marriage, money, gender and class are
prominent
Austin has used occasional symbols, so they are very few.
6.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.Discuss the Pride and Prejudice as novel of Victorian era.
2.Enumerate the various events that indicate money was
important in ‘Pride and Prejudice’.
3.“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in
possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife” how
does this line alert us to the tone of the novel? In wh at ways are
Darcy and Elizabeth guilty of both pride and prejudice and how
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4.Explore Jane Austen’s portrayal of the women in the novel
‘Pride and Prejudice’. In what ways does she sympathise with
their plight and in w hat ways is she unsympathetic?
5.Examine Jane Austen’s use of Irony throughout the novel ‘Pride
and Prejudice’. Give examples of structural irony as well as
irony within the narrator’s description and characters dialogue.
6.Critically evaluate the portrayal of ‘marriage institution’ by Jane
Austen in her novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’.
7.‘Pride and Prejudice’ is a novel about women who feel they
have to marry to be happy. Taking Charlotte Lucas as an
example, do you think the author is making a social criticism on
her era’s view of marriage?
8.Explore the developing relationship between Mr. Darcy and
Miss Elizabeth in context to the title of the novel ‘Pride and
Prejudice’. How do they misunderstand each other and when do
they reach accord?
9.Discuss the narration style and language of the novel ‘Pride and
Prejudice’.
10.Write short notes on the following:
a.Character sketch of Mrs. Bennet
b.Theme of Irony and Wit in Jane Austen’s novel ‘Pride and
Prejudice’
c.Character sketch of Mr. Bingley
d.Theme of Wit in Jane Austen’ s novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’
e.Character sketch of Miss Lydia
f.Significance of the title ‘Pride and Prejudice’
g.Mr and Mrs Bennet
h.Character sketch of Mr. Wickham
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117Unit -7
ROBERT LOUIS STEVENS ON’S
STRANGE CASE OF DR. JEKYLL AND
MR. HYDE -PART -I
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 R.L. Stevenson: A Brief Biography
7.2 Gothic Science Fiction: a Genre
7.3 AL i t e r a r yA l l e g o r y
7.4 Victorian Socio -Cultural Background: A Brief Survey
7.5 Conclusion
7.6 Questions / Exercise
7.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to acquaint students with life and
works of Robert Louis Stevenson, who was highly acclaimed during
his lifetime and is still considered as a literary celebrity. The unit
also introduces gothic science fiction as a genre and discusses
concepts such as literary allegory, to be studied in the context of
R.L. Stevenson’s, Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. This
unit provides socio -cultural background of the time, and to trace
the stimulus behind such works during that period.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson was born at 8 Howard
Place, Edinburgh , Scotland, on 13 November 1850. He was the
only child to his parents. His father Thomas, his paternal uncles,
both, maternal and paternal grandfather, and even his paternal
grandmother’s family were lighthouse Engineers by profession.
Owing to constant ill health in childhood, Robert’s m uch of
education was done at the hands of private tutors. Christened as
‘Lewis' Balfour Stevenson at 18, he changed the spelling of "Lewis"
to "Louis", and, later dropped "Balfour". Although a late
reader, Robert had a highly imaginative mind. He would tel l stories
to his mother and nanny. Throughout his childhood he wrote stories.
Stevenson entered the University of Edinburgh to study engineering,
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118Robert from this decision, yet asked him to learn law for a sound
source of income. Stevenson studied law, but never practiced it.
Stevenson’s first two books, An Inland Voyage (1878)
andTravels with a Donkey in the Cevennes (1879), are based on
his excursions in France. His first major success came with
Treasure Island (1883), a pirate story about buried gold, followed by
Kidnapped (1886) and Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
(1886). Prince Otto (1885), The Black Arrow -A Tale of Two Roses
(1888) and The Master of Ballantrae (1889). Treas ure Island and
Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde were made into films. A
Child’s Garden of Verses, Underwoods, Ballads, and Songs of
Travel and Other Verses are his poetry collections. He also has
many short stories collections, essay collections. An dt r a v e lw r i t i n g s
to his credit.
R.L Stevenson passed away at Samoa, on 3rdDecember,
1894, at the age of 84.
7.2GOTHIC SCIENCE FICTI ON: A GENRE
Science fiction is a form of fiction that deals with imaginary
scientific concepts. It is based on the bas ic premise that there is
some technological and scientific advancement, which can affect
the human race. However the element of science and rational is
only seemingly plausible, since there is imaginary aspect involved
in it. Either the setting of the stor y is in distant future, or the
scientific technology is futuristic. Science fiction thus, is realistic
and logical to the extent that within the context of story, it tries to
explain all imaginary elements through scientific possibilities, and
the impact o fa c t u a lo ri m a g i n e d science upon society or
individuals. It tries to explore the moral consequences of scientific
inventions. The fantasy element in science fiction has been alluring
for both, writers as well as the readers. It allows writers the freedom
to play with creative ideas without having to worry about their
credibility. The scientific explanation works, since readers wanting
the escape from reality, accept the ‘suspension of disbelief’ within
the context of the story. Science fiction is thus more about
fictionalizing science in the make believe world, rather than the
putting forward actual scientific truth. It is ag e n r ew h e r e fiction is
always woven around some kind of scientific truth. While Thomas
More’s Utopia (1516) imagines a world with per fect citizens, Sir
Francis Bacon ’s New Atlantis (1627) portrays a futuristic vision of
human discovery and knowledge, expressing his aspirations and
ideals for humankind. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818),
generally held as the first modern science fiction tells the story
ofVictor Frankenstein , a young scientist who crea tes a
grotesque creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Twomunotes.in

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119prominent writers of scientific romances in 19thcentury are Jules
Verne and H. G. wells. Verne’s ‘ Journey to the Center of the
Earth ’(1864), ‘From the Earth to the Moon ’(1865), and ‘Twenty
Thousand Leagues Under the Sea ’(1869) mixes daring ro mantic
adventure with minutely and logically explained technology.
Well’s ‘The Time Machine ’(1895) and ‘ The War of the
Worlds ’(1898), are more of a comment about impact of science on
society. American author L. Frank Baum 's series o f 14 books (1900
–1920) based in fictional Land of Oz setting, contain depictions of
strange weapons and an array of yet to be realized technological
inventions and devices. However science fiction is more than a
medium of foretelling the future inventions. They are the stories
where scientific aspect of the discourse provides rational and
logical principles, which perfectly balance the fictional aspect built
on emotions.
The term “Gothic” originates with the baroque
architecture created by Germanic tribes called the Goths. It was
later expanded to include most of the medieval style of architecture.
The elaborate and intricate style of gothic architecture proved to be
the ideal set ting in the type offiction that concerned itself with
elaborates tales of mystery, suspense, and superstition. Gothic
fiction thus got its name from that style of architecture. The plot of
Gothic fiction involves people who become involved in complex and
evil schemes, usually against an innocent people. Typical elements
of Gothic literature are, terror, mystery, supernatural events or
beings, monsters, horror, damsels in distress, death, and such
other psychologically dense content. The setting is often da rk and
gloomy castles or large mansions with secret passageways, trap
doors, and secret rooms. While this mysterious setting creates a
sense of unease and foreboding, darkness allows for fear and
dread. There are common motifs in gothic fiction. The motif of
the doppelganger , as in Stevenson’s “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.” and
Oscar Wilde’s “Picture of Dorian Gray,” reflect the duality of human
nature. The often seen dream motif conveys the subconscious.
Characters often find themselves in a strange place, li ke Pip in
‘Great Expectations’ who finds himself in a decaying mansion, or
young clerk Jonathan Harker, finding himself trapped within the
castle of count Dracula.
Sigmund Freud, in his essay ’The Uncanny’ (1919), defines
uncanny as “that class of the terrifying which leads back to
something long known to us, once very familiar.” Gothic texts are
full of such uncanny effects which are simultaneously frightening,
unfamiliar and yet also strangely familiar. A long repressed past
suddenly erupts within th ep r e s e n ta n dd e r a n g e si t . Lost dark
secrets revisit characters, creating upheaval in their lives, making
the characters suffer constantly from nervousness and a feeling of
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120desire, pleasur e, power and pain; and particularly illegitimate or
transgressive sexuality, same -sex desire, perversion, obsession,
voyeurism and sexual violence. Characters often carry the guilt of
hidden crime, or some repressed sin. Gothic fiction raises doubt in
mind s of readers regarding possibility of occurrence of the
supernatural in contrast to logic and reason. Also there is a struggle
between spiritual and monstrous. Supernatural elements like ghosts
and monsters are symbolic of forcefully suppressed emotional
issues that need urgent attention. Gothic fiction thus has freedom to
explore tabooed subjects and psychological content, that realistic
fiction lacks. It seeks to create in minds of readers, the possibility of
there being in existence, things beyond human power, reason and
knowledge. However all astonishing things ultimately turn out to be
logically explicable. Gothic thus, during the attempt to shock
readers, gives them the experience of sublime. Horace Walpole’s
‘The Castle of Otranto’ (1764) is widely ac cepted as the first gothic
novel. The genre got matured with time, and not only survived in
20thcentury, but is still popular in 21stcentury. The external horror is
more subtle in modern Gothic works. Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s
“The Yellow Wallpaper.” An dP o e ’ s“ T h eT e l l t a l eH e a r t , ”e x a m i n e s
the inner psychology of guilt. In American literature, works of Edgar
Allen Poe, Nathanial Hawthorn, and William Faulkner are prominent
in this genre. The setting in American gothic fiction is wilderness,
rather than old mansions.
Gothic science fiction is said to be a subgenre of Science
fiction, which incorporates elements of gothic conventions
intoscience fiction. It tends to have dark atmosphere of gothic
literature as the backdrop of a scientific tale, heighteni ng its mystery.
The irrational and supernatural of Gothic fiction and the rational
foundation of Science Fiction weave together a revealing story
where the universe can still surprise us. For example werewolves
and vampires are explained either as some fai led scientific
experiment, or an alien race.
Increasingly growing scientific temper in 19thcentury also
gave birth to fear about the fast paced scientific progress, since
future seemed unstable and uncertain. Gothic became a perfect
medium to address suc h anxieties. It fulfills the twin desire of
rational and ordered universe on one hand and romantic need for
surprise and sublimity on the other hand within the same fictional
discourse. It deals with the physical and the psychological aspects
of the human life. Gothic SF characteristically clothes scientific
doubt with romantic spirit. The coexistence of these opposing
principles, in Gothic SF is only seemingly paradoxical, since at its
center lies a sense of wonder that arises as much from its Gothic
as from its scientific elements. Gothic SF explores secrets,
inexplicable violence and wildness lurking beneath the veneer of
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121civiliza tion. Need for such fiction in present day is therefore self -
explanatory. According to Botting, most science fiction tales are
cautionary narratives that warn readers about the dangerous
consequences of scientific advancement and technology. Because
of the ir doom and gloom message, science fiction tales are
fundamentally gothic. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818), R.L
Stevenson’s ‘Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’(1886),
Ricard Matheson’s ‘I am Legend’, C.S. Freidman’s ‘The Coldfire
Trilogy’, Robert Zelazny’s ‘The Great Book of Amber’ are few
popular Gothic Science fiction books.
7.3A LITERARY ALLEGORY
An allegory is a story that works at least on two levels of
meaning, as there can be many more layers of meaning. There’s
the surface of the story, and then there's the symbolic level, or the
deeper meaning that the surface narrative represents. The symbolic
meaning of an allegory can be political, religious, historic al,
philosophical, or psychological. Although an allegory uses symbols,
it is different from symbolism . While a symbol is an object that
stands for another object giving it a particular meaning, which is a
singular event, an allegory is a complete narrative which tells
secondary story. Allegories convey abstract ideas and
principles through characters, and plot. Its purpose is to teach an
underlyi ng moral lesson. Allegories are sustained metaphors.
According to George MacDonald "Af a i r yt a l ei sn o ta n
allegory". Any text can be read allegorically, yet an allegory is
purposefully written to represent some deeper truth or idea. Robert
Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde can be
read as an allegory about original sin and the fall of man in biblical
terms. It can also be read as a psychological all egory in terms of
Freudian theory of id ego and superego, where Dr. Jekyll
represents the conscious ego Mr. Hyde being his id, and his
superego, being the Victorian morality of his society. However he
fails to achieve the balance between his “ego ideals”, and the
biological, instinctual demands of his id.
C.S. Lewis 'ss‘The Chronicles of Narnia is a
famousreligious allegory .T h el i o n Aslan is a Christ figure, and the
character of Edmund, who betrays Aslan, is a Judas figure .G e o r g e
Orwell’s ‘Animal Farm ’ is a political allegory. The narrative tells the
story of talking farm animals, but it has a secondary meaning of the
rise of the Communist party in Russia between 1917 and 1943. The
characters and actions in the plot can be direc tly interpreted as a
representation of political events in Russian history .O t h e rf a m o u s
allegories include John Bunyan's ‘Pilgrim's Progress ’, William
Golding's ‘The Lord of the Flies ’.Edm und Spenser's ‘The Faerie
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1227.4VICTORIAN SOCIO -CULTURAL BACKGROUND: A
BRIEF SURVEY
Victorian era was the peri od of Queen Victoria 's reign, 1837
until her death in 1901. Most prominent aspect of life and society in
Victorian England was, change. Nearly every institution of societ y
was shaken by rapid and unpredictable change. It was the period of
political and labour reforms. Huge amounts of wealth created
through industrial revolution gave birth to newly rich “middle class,”
an urbane, entrepreneurial segment of society which saw itself as
the natural successor to ‘old order’. The upper class was
constituted of nobility, and wealthy families. At the same time,
scientific advancements were undermining the position of the
Church. Darwinian theories of evolution and natural selection
brought humanity down to the level of the animal, and seemingly
reduced the meaning of life to a gory struggle for survival. Rather
than a benign Creator, the world was dominated and steered by
strength alone. The gap between the haves and have -nots
widened significantly during the Victorian period. Cities were
teeming with slums. Women held very little power.
Victorian era is famous for its impossibly high standards of
personal and public morality. Victorian ethos embraced hard work,
honesty, thrift, a sense of duty and responsibility towards the less
well off (provided that they deserved help ),sexual restraint ,low
tolerance for crime and a strict social code of conduct .
Respectability and social reputation was of supreme importance,
and those who challenged it would be criticized and shunned
publicly. Responsibility of upholding socia l conduct was more on
upper classes than lower classes. All the positive values such as
enlightenment, refinement, and morality were associated with the
upper classes, while negativity was associated with the lower
classes. Discussing physical love in the public sphere was frowned
upon, and any discussion of sex was limited. Practice of writing
explicitly erotic matter in personal correspondence was however
common in elite classes. While pregnancy before marriage was a
taboo, homosexuality was a crime. Ther e was a clear social
separation between the upper and lower classes, and clearly
defined gender roles. It was thus a period of many contradictions.
Outward appearance of dignity and restraint coexisted along with
prostitution andchild labour . This pushed the Victorian era into a
period of human hypocrisy and emotional suppression.
7.5 CONCLUSION
R. L Stevenson’s ‘Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’
falls into the category of gothic science fiction. Various aspects of
gothic fiction, science fiction and gothic science fiction aremunotes.in

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123discussed in detail in this unit. It also needs to be read within the
context of Victorian background and as an allegory, the concepts
which are discussed here.
7.6 QUESTIONS/ EXERC ISE
Q1. Gothic -science fiction as a genre is a fruitful fusion of gothic
fiction and science fiction. Discuss this statement.
Q2. Evaluate “Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” as a
literary allegory
Q3. Discuss how socio -cultural factors in Victorian era proved
conducive to the development of gothic -science fiction.
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Unit -8
ROBERT LOUIS STEVENS ON’S
STRANGE CASE OF DR. JEKYLL AND
MR. HYDE -PART -II
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 A Brief Summary
8.3 Analysis of Major characters
8.4 Themes
8.5 Conclusion
8.6 Questions/ E xercise
8.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to provide students a deep
insight into R.L. Stevenson’s “Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde”. The unit provides a brief summary of the novella. It also
discusses analysis of major characters, and thematic aspects of the
novella.
8.1INTRODUCTION
Strange Case of Dr .Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a gothic
science fiction novella by the Scottish author Robert Louis
Stevenson, first published in 1886. The book was an immediate
success, and is Stevenson’s be stselling work till date, the other
popular work being Treasure Island (1882). There are dozens of
stage and film adaptations of the novella, and over 123 film
versions alone, not including stage and radio versions. The story is
set in Victorian England. T he book’s initial success owed itself to
the moral implications of man’s conduct, rather than to any artistic
merits. This was evident from the fact that the book was widely
referred to by theologists in the church sermons, and was generally
read by the pu blic otherwise nonreaders of the fiction. However,
since then it has generated a huge interest among academics and
students of psychology. The novel is a fascinating story of duality.
The book is representative of socio -cultural norms of Victorian
period . It tells the story of a medical doctor and brilliant scientist, Dr.
Jekyll, and his struggle to between his conflicting tendencies of
good and evil. As he tries to have the best of both the worlds, themunotes.in

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evil liberated by him becomes uncontrollable, leadin gt oh i sr u i n .
The novella however is a great study of human nature.
8.2 A BRIEF SUMMARY
The Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is the story of
Dr. Henry Jekyll, a r ich, kind, middle aged bachelor and an evil,
inhuman Mr. Edward Hyde. John Utterson, is a prosecutor, and
friend of Dr. Jekyll. He is puzzled by the fact that Jekyll had recently
changed his will to make Mr. Edward Hyde, the sole beneficiary of
his wealth. John Utterson suspects foul play, and possible
blackmailing by Hyde. He finally man ages to encounter Hyde. Hyde
is ugly and seems like deformed .It surprises Utterson, and also
makes him feel disgusted. However, Dr. Jekyll assures his friend
Utterson that everything involving Hyde is in order and that there is
no reason to worry. One nig ht, a servant girl witnesses Hyde
beating a man to death with a heavy cane. The victim is MPSir
Danvers Carew, who is also a client of Mr. Utterson. Sometime
later Utterson again visits Jekyll, and mentions the incidence about
Hyde. Dr. Jekyll appears restless and uneasy. He assures Utterson
that he has ended all relations with Hyde. For a few months, Jekyll
returns to his former friendly and sociable behavior, as if ah e a v y
weight has been lifted from his shoulder. However very soon, his
behavior again changes and he suddenly starts refusing visitors.
Dr. Hastie Lanyon, a common friend of Dr.Jekyll and Mr. Utterson,
suddenly dies of shock after receiving some inform ation about Dr.
Jekyll. Before his death, Lanyon gives Mr. Utterson
Aletter, with instructions that he should open it only after Dr.
Jekyll's death or his disappearance. Soon afterwards, Jekyll's
butler, Mr. Poole, visits Utterson. He is in a state of d esperation and
explains that Jekyll has secluded himself in his laboratory for
several weeks. Utterson goes with Pool, to Dr. Jekyll’s house. They
believe that the voice coming from inside the laboratory is not the
voice of Jekyll. The footsteps of the per son inside are light,
whereas Dr. Jekyll used to walk with heavy footsteps. After arguing
for some time, both of them decide to break into Jekyll's laboratory.
Inside, they find the dead body of Mr. Hyde, wearing Dr. Jekyll's
clothes. Apparently he has com mitted suicide. They also find a
letter left by Dr. Jekyll for Mr. Utterson promising to explain the
entire mystery. Utterson first reads Lanyon’s letter and then Jekyll's.
The first letter reveals that Lanyon’s deterioration and eventual
death had been re sulted from the shock. He had witnessed Mr.
Hyde drinking a potion, after which he had turned into Dr. Jekyll.
The second letter explains the story of Dr.Jekyll and his odd
behavior. He, from childhood was uncomfortable about some
negative desires present in him. He decides to find a way by which
he can separate his good side from his dark side. After many
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periodically into a person who can be totally free of conscience.
And the transformed per sonality is Hyde. The transformation
however remains incomplete, because it creates a second, evil
identity of Mr. Hyde, but it does not make Dr. Jekyll purely good. At
first, Jekyll reports that he is happy in changing himself into Hyde.
He likes the mora lf r e e d o mh eg e t sa sH y d e .A l lh en e e d st od oi s
take potion, to turn into Hyde. However, later he finds himself
turning into Hyde involuntarily in his sleep, even without taking the
potion. At this point, Jekyll resolves to stop becoming Hyde. One
night, however, the urge grips him too strongly, and after the
transformation he immediately rushes out and violently kills Sir
Danvers Carew. Horrified, Jekyll tries more adamantly to stop the
transformations. However now involuntary metamorphosis start
happenin g during waking hours, and more frequently. Also Dr.
Jekyll needs larger doses of potion to turn back into his original
form, from Hyde. Eventually, the stock of ingredients from which
Jekyll had been preparing the potion, starts to get over. He orders
thenew supplies, but and the new batches fail to produce the
transformation. Apparently, the original chemical had some impurity
in them, because of which the transformations were happening,
and subsequent supplies all lack the essential ingredient or impuri ty
that had made the potion successful for his experiments. His ability
to change back from Hyde into Jekyll also slowly reduces, but his
transformations into Hyde, without potion increases. Dr. Jekyll
realizes that he would soon become Hyde permanently. H ence
when his original chemicals are finished, he commits suicide.
8.3 ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR CHARACTERS
8.3.1 Dr. Henry Jekyll
Dr. Jekyll is a respected doctor and friend of both Lanyon, a
fellow physician, and Utterson, a lawyer. Jekyll, a middle aged
bachelor is a prosperous man, well established in the community
and known for his decency and charitable works. He appe ars grave
and serious in public buthas some negative desires in his nature,
which he conceals. He gives parties for his bachelor friends, which
are focused around discussions about arts, science, and literature.
He characterizes himself as a double -dealer, and not as a
hypocrite. This is because he concludes that all men are both good
and evil, and the best thing for humanity is to try and separate
these two opposing facets of the personality. From his youth he is
committed to learning and knowledge, which demands gravity of
nature. However, he equally enjoys his desires and pleasures,
which he calls shameful behavior, and hence indulges in them
secretly. Thus while he appears as moral and decent, he is not all
that virtuous.
In fact after succeeding in separating his evil as Hyde, he
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self as a mixture of good and evil. His con science constantly makes
him feel guilty about his corrupt activities, and seeks the permanent
solution for it. As a man of science, he searches for a scientific
method of using chemicals to separate these dual personalities in
order to allow one side to s eek pleasure without guilt, while the
other side maintains the morally upright behavior. He creates a
potion, which when consumed, turns him into Mr. Hyde, entirely
another and an evil person. The potion works well initially bringing
the successful transfo rmation of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde into each
other .However soon pleasure -seeking side dominates and the
socially responsible side utterly fails to control it. Asam a no f
conscience, Dr. Jekyll is aware that his secret desires are bad, and
harmful to o thers .Hence he often tries to fix the harm that he
caused as Mr. Hyde. But eventually, Hyde gets control over Jekyll
and Jekyll has to engage into forbidden pleasures no matter what it
costs him. It is significant, that the dead body found by Utterson
and Poole is of Hyde, and not of Dr. Jekyll. Jekyll himself no longer
exists and only Hyde remains. Thus metaphorically, Hyde kills
Jekyll, although in reality Jekyll commits suicide before he turns into
Hyde one last time. His name perhaps provides a clue: " Je" in
French means "I," while "kyll" = kill His experiment of separating
good and evil into two entities had not only failed, but had created
more evil in its wake. Jekyll continued to harbor his dark side, while
in Hyde he created another evil entity tha t kept on growing and
getting stronger.
8.3.2 Mr. Edward Hyde
Edward Hyde is the person, who comes into being when Dr.
Jekyll drinks the potion. He is Dr. Jekyll’s evil alter ego who
indulges in various undisclosed vices. He’s smaller, younger, and
more e nergetic. He is violent and cruel, and everyone who meets
him describes him as ugly and deformed although no one can
specify the exact nature of deformity. When he first appears he is
described as a “little man”. Utterson calls him “dwarfish” and
“troglodyt ic”, which brings to mind an ape -like image suggesting a
certain inhumanity or bestiality. Richard Enfield says there is
something detestable in him that is hard to explain. His smile is a
“murderous mixture of timidity and boldness ”.He stimulates fear,
disgust, and loathing in anyone who sees him, even from afar.
Whereas in human beings, exist s
Both, good and evil, Hyde is probably the only person in the
world who is pure evil. He has a propensity for violence. He enjoys
beating up people. As the name suggests, Hyde is both a persona
that Dr. Jekyll hides behind and a hidden man himself.
8.3.3Gabriel John Utterson
Gabriel John Utterson, a lawyer, is a good and longtime
friend of Dr. Jekyll. He is described as “lean, long, dusty, [and]munotes.in

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dreary” man wi th a rugged face that is “never lighted by a smile”.
He is a man of few words, and although dull, is still somehow
“lovable”. Utterson is a stereotypical Victorian gentleman with
impeccable manners and conscientious nature, He is reliable,
trustworthy, and non -judgmental person, and this has earned him
many friends, and people often come to him for advice. When his
friend Dr. Lanyon gives him the note not to be opened until Dr.
Jekyll's death or disappearance, in spite of the temptation to read it
in orde r to help Dr. Jekyll, he preserves it unread. . He is organized,
rational, most importantly loyal to his friends. When he suspects his
friend Jekyll of sheltering a murderer, he prefers to keep silence to
protect Jekyll’s reputation. Utterson does not goss ip and
safeguards the reputation of his friends at all the costs. When
Enfield tells him the story of his encounter with Hyde, Utterson
realizes that the wealthy person mentioned is none other than
Jekyll, but does not disclose this to Enfield. He does con duct his
own investigations about Hyde, and speaks to Jekyll, but only to
help and not to interfere. However, throughout this saga Utterson
does not suspect anything uncannily mysterious, as he has very
logical mind, and assumes a logical reason behind the strange
happenings regarding his friend Dr. Jekyll. Except for the last two
Chapters, most of the novel is narrated by Mr. Utterson. He is an
objective narrator, which helps to sustain the sinister mood of the
novel for readers.
8.3.4 Dr. Hastie Lanyon
Dr. Hastie Lanyon wasa longtime friend of Dr. Jekyll, but has
broken off the friendship with Dr. Jekyll, some ten years before the
story begins. His approach to science is rational, conventional and
materialist .He is skeptical of Jekyll’s metaphysical enqu iry of
science, and dismisses his experiments, as “unscientific
balderdash”. He even ends his friendship to Jekyll over his
principles, as he disagrees with Jekyll’s interest in the perverse
aspects of science; however, his objection to Jekyll’s line of sc ience
is moralistic since he believes that Jekyll has gone wrong in mind to
follow the devil’s ways. His Victorian conventionalism is thus a
degree greater than Utterson. Lanyon is first person other than
Jekyll to know the true identity of Hyde, and the o nly one who has
actually witnessed Hyde’s transformation into Jekyll. To his God
fearing, moralist and rational mind this becomes too much of a
shock to bear. He prefers to die rather than live in the upside down
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8.4 THEMES
The major themes of the play are as follows.
8.4.1The Duality
The novella is a fascinating story of duality. Since his youth
Dr. Jekyll was both, fascinated and disgusted of the duality of his
own nature .He comes to the conclusion that the condition isn’t
unique to him, but is the fate of whole humanity, as “man is not truly
one, but truly two .” However, Jekyll is obsessed of his evil rather
than his good. There is no angelic counterpart to demonic Hyde,
because s eparating his evil as Hyde neither renders his angelic,
nor gets rid of evil in him completely. It is logical that Hyde takes
over Jekyll. Since right from beginning evil is the focus of Jekyll’s
thinking, it keeps on getting stronger.
Hyde is described in animalistic terms, and he is ruled by
instinct rather than reason. Utterson describes him as a
“troglodyte,” or primitive creature. Yet Hyde takes delight in violent
crimes against his innocent victims, which is not the nature of
animals. He is thus del iberately immoral, than amoral. This
indicates that he knows moral laws, and loves to break them. Hyde
thus represents the darker side of the society. Probably Stevenson
wants to suggest that human nature is not dual, but single,
constituting dark primitiv e urges, kept in check by the rules of
civilization. Once the repression of those dark urges eases it
becomes impossible to put back into place, allowing the "true", dark
nature of man to emerge. While Utterson keeps a check on his evil
through stern disci pline, Dr. Lanyon takes the moral route. When
Dr. Jekyll foolishly tries to unleash his primitive urges, he ends up
dead.
Duality is also seen in city of London. It is dangerous, dark,
and fog covered at 3am, habituated by crooks, with its brothels,
pubs, and beggars. It is associated with Hyde, as he freely walks
unnoticed through the gas lit streets, like lurking danger. The city
also holds magnificent houses of Dr. Jekyll and Dr. Lanyon,
respectable members of the society. The city with its duality
provides perfect place for Dr. Jekyll’s work.
Compared to Jekyll’s prosperous home, Hyde’s home is a
sinister block of building with its decaying structure and air of
neglect. However, both are connected and parts of the same
house, opening on different stree ts.
The world of the story is dominated by men, with very few
references to women, who are portrayed as weak and passive. All
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towards the skewed balance in masculine and feminine elements,
leading to excessive violence and lack of domesticity and love.
8.4.2 Good vs. Evil
Battle between good and evil is most evident theme of the
text. The novella can be viewed as an allegory about good and evil
existing in every individual. Jekyll’s struggle with his dormant evil
represents universal phenomena, and outcome depends on the
choices made. Jekyll never muses on how to strengthen his good.
It points towards the inference that Jekyll had in him more of Hyde,
than he lets it know, and the persona of D r. Jekyll is merely for
social requirements. What classifies a person as good or evil
depends upon which side of their nature is in control. From
beginning, it is the evil that is in control in Dr. Jekyll, directing all his
faculties towards the liberation of it. He sums it up as, “I knew
myself, at the first breath of this new life, to be more wicked, tenfold
more wicked, sold a slave to my original evil; and the thought, in
that moment, braced and delighted me like wine. Moreover, the
drug was neither goo d, nor evil, it simply let it out what was awaited
and in case of Jekyll, it was the darker side that was more present.
Thus creation of Hyde was caused not by the drug, but by the
choice of Dr. Jekyll, and the drug was just the key to unleash what
wanted to be expressed. Utterson’s choices of drinking gin, when
he enjoyed vintage wine and avoiding theaters show his efforts in
checking the darker impulses in him.
Also the terms good and evil need sto be seen with
reference to the concepts of public virtue and respectability.
However, it appears that good defeats evil because in the
endHyde is found dead, indicating the good side of Dr. Jekyll taking
final control.
8.4.3 Lack of Communication
Throughout the novel, characters show the marked lack of
communi cation, intentionally or unintentionally. Although Enfield
and Utterson both are aware that the signature on the check
presented by Hyde was of Dr. Jekyll, they do not communicate the
fact to each other. They also do not discuss the incident further.
After the murder of Sir Danvers Carew, Utterson withholds from
police, the close association of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, in order to
protect Jekyll. Also Dr. Lanyon refuses to explain to Utterson the
reason of no communication between Dr. Jekyll and himself. Je kyll
too refuses to discuss about Hyde to Utterson. Not to speak about
undesirable was the decorum of Victorian society. It was important
to maintain appearances in public in order to preserve the social
reputation. Behaviors of Enfield, Lanyon, Utterson a nd Jekyll are
thus motivated by desire to protect respectability of themselves and
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relationships seem to be defined by the secrecy from each other
rather than communication between them. Jeky ll never discloses
the nature of his shameful desires, nor does he mention the vices in
which Hyde indulges himself. Many critics opine that Jekyll’s
silence about his dark tendencies coupled with number of bachelor
gentlemen in the story point towards the homosexuality, which was
a crime in Victorian era, and therefore was unspeakable. These
silences are voluntary and are resulted out of social necessities of
the era.
Involuntary silences however imply the failure of language
itself. Verbal language is a rational and logical, medium of
communication. When confronted with the irrational and
supernatural, probably language itself fails and breaks down. No
one who meets Hyde is able to describe his appearance and facial
feature that makes him seem evil, howev er they all agree that upon
feeling a sense of horror. Hyde thus becomes a faceless evil
described only through the effect he creates on his viewers.
However, this inability of communication seems repressing,
leading to terrible consequences in case of D r. Jekyll.
8.5 CONCLUSION
‘Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’ is a gothic
science fiction. It is fascinating story of duality, rooted in Victorian
time. The novel is a study of moral ambivalence of character. It can
also be read as a study of Freud ian psychoanalysis. The novel is
thus a complex and interesting text with many overlapping
meanings.
8.6CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1. Write a note on following:
i)Dr. Jekyll
ii)Mr. Hyde
iii)Gabriel John Utterson
Q2. Discuss Strange Case of Dr. Jekyl l and Mr. Hyde as a study
of duality.
Q3 Explore the impact of language in Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll
and Mr. Hyde.
Q4. Discuss the concepts of good and evil as presented in this
novel.
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